THE ANNUAL ROUND
The annual seasonal round of current hunting and fishing activities for particular kinds of resources followed by the people of Port Graham and English Bay in the early 1980s . . . was compiled from information collected during 16 consecutive months in 1981 and 1982, interviews with key informants, and general field observations between spring 1981 and fall 1984. The pattern of activities was an integral part of a larger activity cycle common to both communities.
Variations occurred in timing of subsistence activities during the 3-year study period. These variations were due to both natural and regulatory factors. Natural changes in resource abundance and variation in local environmental conditions affected resource availability. Although many natural resources were locally available year-round, harvest often did not occur until local environmental conditions, like tidal size and periods, available daylight, and weather conditions, were suitable.
The most favorable environmental conditions for resource harvesting occurred in the spring and summer. The combination of low tidal conditions and long days was then optimal for gaining access to areas of abundant intertidal resources and migrating marine fish. The harvest of salmon and herring, which wer only seasonally available in suitable harvest areas and sizeable quantities, are significantly influenced by weather, run timing, run size, and season dates. . . .
Spring (March-May)
Along the outer Kachemak Bay shoreline, spring (March through May) brought a gradual warming of coastal waters during the study period. The snowline slowly receded up the mountains expoising south facing slopes. Melting ice and snow in the Port Graham River and English Bay River and lake systems increased stream flow. Fishing activities which were at moderate levels of participation during winter months intensified as the weather warmed and became more favorable for boating on outer Kachemak Bay.
The appearance of Dolly Varden in stream mouths and coastline areas attracted rod and reel fishermen. Jigging for halibut, flounder, Irish lords (sculpins), and other bottom species took place in Port Graham Bay and in nearby waters (from skiffs and pier) during calm weather. English Bay fishermen fished for Dolly Varden in the mouth of the English Bay River, and a few tomcod were caught in the lagoon. On calm days, a few boats when out to deeper waters for bottomfish. As halibut began moving closer to the shoreline and weather conditions cleared, fishing effort increased from both communities.
During minus tidal periods in spring and early summer, shellfish harvest activities reached their peak. Small groups of fishing partners collected snails, chiton, butter clams, cockles, octopus, and an occasional sea urchin and sea cucumber from shoreline areas within walking distance of the villages. Perhaps because some of these areas had been heavily harvested in the past, or due to the intensive activities of sea otters, people traveled to areas away from the villages for some intertidal species, especially clams.
In early May, large numbers of sockeye and chinook salmon migrated in shoreline water in the vicinity of the villages. At this time, set gill nets were used to harvest salmon in a regulated subsistence season. Herring also swam through the same waters, and nets were set near spawning areas. Late spring and early summer was also a time of cool breezes, sunshine, and no flies-ideal conditions for drying and smoking fish.
As south facing hillsides warmed up and snow cover melted, hunters watched for the first signs of black bear. The meat and fat of bear are highly favored among residents of both communities. Rendered bear fat is considered the best for baking. Hunters usually went with one or more partners, and often made trips to distant locations away from the villages where bears are more abundant and less wary. The search for black bear continued into June until green vegetation concealed bears.
As the ground warmed up, several species of plants produced tender shoots and stems used by many households. Cow parsnip (wild celery) and sour dock (wild rhubarb) were the two most commonly used plants at this time of year. Marine shoreline areas produced narrow-leaf plantain or "goose tongue" used as flavoring on baked salmon. Several species of marine birds including seagulls and puffins returning to their nesting area, were hunted for their meat. Their eggs were taken to be eaten fresh and used in cooking.
Summer (June-August)
By mid June, the first part of the subsistence salmon set net season ended, and many people concentrated their efforts on either commercial salmon set netting or preparing for commercial salmon seining. Halibut fishing reached its peak at this time. Most households went out daily to fish for halibut.
The increased day length and warmer temperatures allowed long working days, and considerable time was spent repairing boats and motors, mending fishing nets, and preparing for commercial fishing. A few people fished commercially for halibut. Depending on funding, several small village work projects such as litter cleanup and housing repairs were underway. A few households prepared small garden plots for growing potatoes, lettuce, cabbage, and turnips.
As salmon moved into streams to spawn, hook and line fishermen continued building their winter supplies of dry fish. Commercial salmon set net fishermen began fishing during the second week of June and were usually active throughout June, July, and August, sparing little time for putting up resources for home use. Other family members not involved in commercial fishing harvested salmon, halibut, and other species of saltwater fish.
During July and August, commercial fishing activity peaked with runs of pink salmon harvested primarily by seine boats. Fishermen from both communities traveled to Tutka Lagoon, Seldovia Bay, Dogfish Bay, Port Dick, and Windy Bay for commercial openings. On these trips, especially to outer district areas, some of their time was spent hunting seal and fishing for bottom fish while waiting for commercial openings. Generally, the Port Graham cannery operated until August 15 at full capacity with workers putting in 12-hour shifts.
The harvest of plants required knowledge of their identification and uses, but usually only moderate physical effort. From mid to late summer, greens and berries were harvested and preserved by canning or drying, or were eaten fresh. Several species of berries were gathered in large quantities. Salmonberries especially were abundant and favored by most households.
Silver salmon became the focus of fishing activity at the end of summer. Rod and Reel fishing in Port Graham Bay and at the mouth of the English Bay Lagoon was directed at silvers, preferred for freezing, salting, and cutting into strips for smoking.
Fall (September-November)
In September moose, coho salmon, berries, seal, and black bear were harvested in a final effort to meet food storage requirements. Near the end of the salmon runs in early fall, fishing efforts shifted from salmon to other fin fish like Dolly Varden, rainbow trout, and halibut and to game such as moose, bear, grouse and waterfowl. In September, hunters from both communities planned trips to their favorite hunting locations. Although not abundant in the area, moose were hunted each year by residents of both communities. Parties of hunters usually walked to forest edges along the Port Graham and English Bay Rivers. Camps were established around the English Bay lakes and were used as bases of activities. Several hunters had built cabins on their native allotments and spent two to three weeks hunting, fishing, and picking high-bush cranberries. Black bear were hunted in productive berry areas above timberline and at moose kills. Goats were hunted in the early fall, particularly at Dogfish Bay and Port Chatham. Hunting parties also went by boat to the head of Kachemak Bay and to Dogfish Bay where they hunted moose, bear, and waterfowl. Marine mammals were hunted opportunistically during these trips. Seal hunting parties traveled to Yukon or Elizabeth Islands.
Winter (December -February)
The winter period between December and mid February had relatively low levels of resource harvest activity. This was a time when most households participated in Russian Orthodox holiday activities and when large quantities of the fish and game preserved during summer and fall months were distributed and consumed among households. Feasting was associated with all special events like Russian New year, Masking, and Russian Christmas.
Wood gathering was a common resource harvest activity at this time. Snowmobiles and three-wheelers were used to haul wood from neighboring forests.
In early winter, waterfowl were hunted as they congregated in nearby bays. Intertidal resources, especially chiton, snails, and clams were gathered from intertidal areas. These resources provided a ready supply of fresh fish and meat. Some people used lanterns and flashlights to search tidal areas at times when low tides occurred during darkness.
In late winter, as day lengths increased, a few people fished for rockfish, greenling, and tomcod during calm days. Fishermen usually did not venture far from Port Graham Bay. Some people fished off the dock at Port Graham. At English Bay, the lagoon ice often froze thick enough to walk on. Tomcod were caught through the ice by jigging with handlines or with rod and reel. . . .
DISCUSSION
THE ORGANIZATION OF RESOURCE USE ACTIVITIES
In Port Graham and English Bay during the study period, resource harvest activities were usually organized among members of kinship related groups of households. Group organization was further structured by the ownership of equipment, facilities, the possession of knowledge, and land-use rights. Typically, a work unit of salmon producing households had a fishing site, boat and motor, nets, smokehouse, drying racks, and a cutting and processing area. The roles of individuals within fishing groups were determined by knowledge, age, and experience. These three elements also appeared related to the possession of equipment facilities and hunting or fishing locations. Of particular interest is that the elder generation in both communities was the first to gain the economic ability to own commercial fishing sites and significant amounts of modern equipment. Their children are now becoming heirs to the parents' equipment and fishing and hunting locations, and have gained the necessary knowledge to continue these activities.
Male and female roles in resource use activities were clearly defined in almost all instances. In salmon set netting, for example, adult males set and tended the nets and performed most of the heavy work of pulling nets and caring for equipment. Exceptions to this general order of labor occurred in both communities. Women often accompanied men on large boats and when tending nets. Generally, however, women prepared salmon for preservation.
In other activities such as hunting and wood gathering, men took the lead in organizing and conducting hunts and wood gathering trips. Women were very active in berry picking and gathering other edible plants and usually took lead roles in these activities. Women also were responsible for estimating quantities of resources required by their households each year. Fishing trips for saltwater and freshwater species were frequently organized and led by women. Rod and reel fishing for halibut and silver salmon were the two fishing activities most commonly participated in by women. Further exceptions to the general roles of men and women occurred when young, unmarried men lived with their parents. In these cases, the young men often assisted their mothers in cutting and preserving fish and other resources. They also helped other extended family members in harvesting and preserving annual supplies of wild foods. . . .