ANNUAL ROUND OF RESOURCE ACTIVITIES

. . . Timing and scheduling of resource harvest activities are tied to two major season determined by the presence or absence of sea ice. Access to available resources, technology utilized, and mode of transportation are dictated by conditions of "open" or "closed" water. Transitional periods of new thin ocean ice (singuliaq) slush ice (ginu) and rotten soft ice limit travel and, hence, often curtail hunting and fishing excursions

During the open ice and ice-free months from mid April to mid November, boats are the principal means of travel outside the village. Most residents continue to build their own boats to meet specifications of the shallow ocean and river waters. . . . Builders report that the longer boats allow them to carry bigger loads and more people and to travel greater distances. Two motors, between 25 to 75 horsepower, are considered a safeguard against getting stranded a long ways from home.

Once the ice along the coast is frozen solid (tuaq) and the ground is covered by a blanket of snow, then snowshoes, snowmobiles, and dog teams become the mode of transport. Most households have at least one form of transportation for getting around on the land and ice-covered sea during the winter months. . . . For traveling intermediate distances year-round, three-wheel motorized all-terrain vehicles are used. In addition, a few households or businesses own trucks, and three light aircraft are owned by local residents.

In the spring, usually by late April, with lengthening daylight and warmer temperatures, the ocean ice becomes softer and leads begin to appear in the ice close to shore. This signals the approach of the spring seal harvest, probably the most intense resource harvesting period of the annual round. Four species of ice seals-bearded, ringed, spotted, and an occasional ribbon-are found in spring associated with the Bering and Chukchi Seas. Early in the seal hunting season, Shishmaref hunters travel by snowmobile to the opening leads. As the water passages widen and open water separates the shore ice (tuaq) from the pack ice (ianik) hunters switch to boats. Men shoot the seals either on the ice or in the water, retrieving them with specialized sinkhooks (manat) or floating hooks (iillhaq). After gutting the harvest is delivered to the seal camp for processing.

Bearded seal (or ugruk as it is most commonly referred to by both Inupiaq and English speakers) is the largest of the four species and is also of primary economic importance to the community. "We eat everything from the internal organs to meat and blubber and use the skin-no part of the ugruk is wasted." Methods of preparation are complex and labor intensive. Women, working alone or in pairs at the seal camps, separate the meat from the blubber and hang the various cuts of meat and internal organs on racks to dry or practically dry. Hides are cleaned and staked on the ground to dry during the coming months. Meat, which is to be partially cooked before storage, is often boiled in large containers directly at the seal camps.

Although not as important for human consumption, the other seal species are considered valuable resources by the community. The hides in particular are used in a variety of ways providing raw material for clothing, footwear, accessories, and crafts. Ringed sealskins are left intact after the meat has been removed and then used as storage containers for other wild resource foods. After filling, the sealskin containers or "pokes" are usually frozen in sod-covered pits dug into the ground to be retrieved during the winter months. Ringed seal "pokes" are preferred over other types of storage containers, such as barrels or buckets because they are said to keep food fresher and better tasting. Residents report spotted seals "taste bad and leak."

The cultural and economic significance of ugruk to the community is clearly apparent in the reported level of hunting activity. Survey data revealed that 81 percent of the households reported hunting for ugruk, the most of any single resource category. Ugruk is accorded a high priority when making harvest decisions. In a few cases, hunters limited their participation in the seasonal round of harvesting activities to only the spring ugruk harvest. One hunter confirmed, "If we can't get any other game, we will get ugruk first."

Annual resource requirements for ugruk vary, but hunters will take enough to feel "safe." As an example, for an extended family of 11, a harvest of 8 ugruk for one year may be sufficient. "If we don't finish [preparing the harvest], we give to someone else." And, indeed, survey results showed that ugruk was the resource most frequently shared with others. It was also one of the resources most often received by households. For many households, the amount of ugruk stored serves as a gauge by which to measure the amount of other resources needed. The success of the harvest will determine the level of effort expended to secure other resources during the course of the annual round.

During the spring, other sources of fresh meat including wild fowl and squirrels are eagerly sought by some residents after the long winter. Squirrels are trapped by fewer than one-third of the households surveyed; those who trap squirrels also tended to be elders. Both men and women engage in squirrel trapping (an activity referred to as nanigiaqtuq) by placing size 0 traps with no bait at the burrow's entrance. Although the fur is desirable clothing material, squirrels are difficult to skin. Also, the meat of the squirrel must be cooked for a long time in order to make it tender.

Ptarmigan and a few species of migrating waterfowl, such as brants, eiders, white-fronted geese, and pintails, may be hunted, especially during days when weather or ice conditions prevent seal hunting. Hunters watch for waterfowl which may be nesting and are careful to avoid hunting ducks and geese with young (Eisler 1978:71). Some households harvest eggs from gulls, terns, ducks, and geese, taking care not to disturb too many eggs.

Fishing is an activity which occurs year-round, partaken in by old and young, women and men alike. During the ice-free months from July to September, several species of salmon migrate near the village on their way to spawn. These include an occasional silver or king, but are mainly chum (dog) and pink (humpy) salmon. Some families set nets in the ocean close to the village to catch salmon and also whitefish. Checking the net daily tends not to conflict with the more intensive demands of seal harvesting; yet, provides fresh fish for immediate consumption. In good years, the excess can be dried or frozen in household freezers for later use.

Walrus hunting usually occurs after seal hunting is over. The increased popularity of walrus hunting over the last 15 years (Eisler 1978:63) may be a reflection of the increased size and expanded distribution of the walrus population since the 1960s (Kenyon 1978:181). Occasionally, walrus drift closer to shore and may be encountered by seal hunters, but walrus are usually ignored until sufficient quantities of seal have been harvested. Almost half (49 percent) of the surveyed households reported hunting walrus in spite of the high rate of failure. Of the 21 households which hunted walrus, 8 (38 percent) were unsuccessful in their quest. Walrus migrate through the vicinity for only a couple of weeks from mid June to mid July, and hunters are well aware of the dangers involved in pursuing walrus. Walrus are extremely large sea mammals which may weigh up to two tons. They are usually found far from the Shismaref coast in association with the pack ice.

Walrus hunting required the cooperation of an able crew. Usually, hunters prefer to travel in two boats, equipped with two motors on each because of the distance involved in reaching the walrus herd. If a motor breaks down 40 miles from shore, the availability of another boat can be a safeguard against disaster. Also, the round or flat-bottomed boats so well adapted for shallower water and rivers are not as functional in the open sea or in pack ice where walrus are usually found. To minimize the risks and maximize their efficiency, hunters may take a couple of drums of gas and food and supplies for several days. Some crews plan on staying out for two or three days at a stretch and camp on the ice floes or in the boat if it is foggy. But, a sudden and unexpected shift in wind can shut off access to open water leaving hunters stranded for much longer. An awareness of wind and ice conditions is critical while walrus hunting.

Most of the walrus are encountered in herds on the ice. The hunters in the crew aim for the neck and head area for a clean shot. If a walrus slips into the water after being hit, it is extremely difficult to retrieve because of its weight. Because of the chances of getting caught on the ice due to changing weather and ice conditions and the labor involved in hauling and transporting walrus, hunters will typically take only one walrus at a time and gut the harvest right away.

The extensive utilization of the walrus and the variety of preparation methods provide culinary diversity. Back meat, flippers, heart, intestines, and liver are especially enjoyed. Walrus often consume large quantities of clams, and the clams found in the walrus stomach are also eaten. The outer layer of skin (kauk) is a particular delicacy, as well as some of the meat which is buried after harvest and allowed to ferment slightly before it freezes (usrravak). In addition, walrus tusks are highly prized and serve as the raw material for local carvers.

When the last of the seal harvest has been processed and prepared for storage, many families depart the village for fall season campsites. In 1982, as in recent years, fall camping roughly coincides with the opening of moose hunting season around the first of August in Game Management Units (GMU) 22D and 22E. Fall is also an important time for gathering berries and greens, fishing, squirrel trapping, and waterfowl hunting. Some Shismaref residents go out for the day only, while others leave for up to eight weeks returning to the village for short periods to restock their supply of gasoline and food.

Moose did not begin migrating onto the Seward Peninsula until the 1950s; Shismaref hunters recollect that the first moose was taken in 1956. Since then, moose have become one of the primary resources; yet, are also one of the most elusive. Over 65 percent o the surveyed households hunted moose during 1982, and households reported it was among the resources most often received through sharing. . . . The first moose of the season is treated with a good deal of importance and inspires friendly competition among the hunters. The first moose is shared with the entire village, the choice pieces being reserved for the elders. The hunter's household may actually end up with very little of the meat from the first moose, but a certain amount of prestige will be accorded the hunter.

Harvested moose are usually dressed in the field, the stomach and guts are left behind. After butchering, the meat is dried or frozen. The moose hide is either removed whole or cut with the meat. Perhaps because of the relatively recent introduction of moose into the economy, the hides are not used as raw material for clothing or crafts. Some women remarked that they do not know how to prepare the hides, but would like to learn.

During August, some families feel it is more important to first pick berries before intensive moose hunting since moose will be around longer. Berry picking is an activity which is accompanied by excitement. Predictions are made on the magnitude of the year's crop based on the previous spring's weather and wind. Men, women, and children all participate, choosing their ground carefully before sweeping out across the tundra, buckets in hand. The beloved salmonberry (or cloudberry) oily and rich in Vitamin C, is the first to ripen followed by blueberries, crowberries (also known as blackberries), bearberries, and cranberries. The berry harvest, particularly salmonberries, will be either frozen in zip-lock bags or in seal pokes and enjoyed as a special treat with winter visitors.

In addition to berries, other edible plants greens, roots, stems, shoots, and buds are eaten. Edible plants such as Eskimo potato, marsh marigold, wooly lousewort, sourdock, dwarf fireweed, wild rhubarb, beach greens, wild celery, and willow leaves are gathered at various times during the spring, summer, and fall months. Most will be combined in meat dishes or eaten with fish or seal oil. While not constituting a major proportion of the diet compared to meat and fish, plant foods are a welcome and important resource of vegetable fiber, carbohydrates, and vitamins.

While berry picking, residents sometimes place a gillnet in the river or ocean and check it for fish at least once a day. Depending on the run location and strength, whitefish, herring, char, lingcod (or burbot) smelt, blue cod, and chum (dog) salmon are caught from July through October. Grayling and tomcod may be caught with rod and reel, but this method is not as productive as setting a net. Much of the catch is for immediate consumption; the remainder is dried or salted in barrels or pokes, frozen, and eaten throughout the winter months. Clams or crabs are also harvested by a few households from August through October.

By the second week in August, waterfowl are usually considered fat enough to hunt. Waterfowl contain especially high levels of fat and protein and are a valued resource both in terms of nutrition and taste preference. Much of the area near the village, particularly around Shishmaref Inlet, is considered key waterfowl habitat (Selkregg 1976). Over 81 percent of the households reported hunting migratory species during 1982, the majority of the hunting occurring in the fall months. Hunters reported that during the fall, they hunt for ducks and geese the same time they are looking for moose; "that way we don't waste gas." Commonly hunted species of migratory waterfowl include: pintails (also called sprigs) black grants, eiders, ducks, mallards, teals, old squaws, and white-fronted Canada and Emperor geese. Some of the harvest is consumed right away whole; the rest is cleaned, usually plucked, and then frozen for winter eating.

The appearance of young ice siguaq in late September or early October signals the approach of freeze-up, and activity centers around the village once again. Some families will have already returned by this time for the commencement of the school year. As the river waters start to freeze and the ocean ice begins creeping southward, attention is refocused on marine mammals and fish. Seal hunters pay close attention to the herring run, as the seals will be close behind.

The spotted seals are the first to arrive, followed by ringed seals and a few young bearded seals. Juvenile ugruk (or anmiaq) found only in the fall, will occasionally enter the mouths of some rivers before the rivers freeze (Burns 1978:197). Hunters describe themselves as "very lucky" to get a young ugruk, as they are considered quite a delicacy-"the prime seal meat." The meat will usually be enjoyed frozen (referred to and quaq) and dipped in fresh seal oil. Fall seal hunting, while not given the same emphasis is the spring hunt, can, nevertheless, make a difference between having a sufficient supply of winter food or not. In years when the spring harvest of bearded seal has been insufficient, more ringed and once in a while spotted seals are stored for human consumption. (Ringed seals are preferred over spotted seals.). The surplus will be skinned and frozen whole to provide food for an increasing dog population. For winter sewing projects, the fall sealskins are especially prized.

Depending on the weather and water conditions after freeze-up, men and women will travel short distances to anchor nets under the icy rivers or to "jig" for herring, tomcod, sculpin, smelt, grayling, lingcod and other over wintering species. Jigging is done with an iqlait, a short driftwood pole tied with fishing line and weighted with a sinker and brightly colored object. Nets must be checked at least every two days or else they may freeze to the ice. After Shishmaref Inlet has frozen, some people, primarily elders, cut holes in the ice to "jig" for flounders, tomcod, herring, smelt, sculpin, or whitefish. A good day's fishing effort can yield a full gunnysack.

After the rivers are solidly frozen, hunters will pursue moose with renewed effort on snowmobiles. Although the 1982 moose hunting season remained open from August first until the end of March, hunters report difficulty in locating moose after freeze-up. Many moose hunting households expressed their frustration that moose are close to the rivers in fall time, but are inaccessible because of shallow water. After freeze-up, the moose are dispersed and hard to find. As the end of the moose season draws near, some unsuccessful hunters may shift their efforts to caribou. Five households (12 percent) surveyed indicated they had hunted caribou during 1982 even though it often required traveling as far as Buckland. "If we don't get moose, we hunt caribou" was typical of the explanation given in most instances. For these few households, caribou may have served as a substitute for moose when moose were considered unavailable.

By mid November, solid ice (tuaq) covers the Chukchi Sea around Shishmaref, but until December, there continues to be areas of open water. Even after freeze-up is complete, offshore winds during the winter months can force leads in the ice to develop. Seal hunters use these occasional opportunities to follow the leads in search of the breathing holes made by ringed seals, the only over wintering seal species. The arctic or white fox also can be hunted on the frozen ocean or along the beach. The highly mobile arctic fix is a valuable fur resource and considered by most hunters to be a very smart animal.

From freeze-up until early spring, a few hunters will seek polar bear. Aerial hunting was discontinued in 1972 with the passage of the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act. Since then, Shishmaref residents have noticed that the polar bear population appears to be increasing. In recent years, bears have been coming in closer to shore and are occasionally encountered along the beach feeding on dead walrus. The majority of polar bears sought by Shishmaref hunters, however, are found with the pack ice up to two miles out and along the coast as far west as Wales.

Some opportunistic hunting occurs on the beaches, but many hunters prefer to pursue polar bears in their ocean habitat. The challenge of polar bear hunting requires a specialized skill and knowledge which results in the prestige accorded individuals known as "polar bear hunters." Of the seven households which reported hunting polar bear during 1982, only two were successful in their efforts. Among other things, polar bear hunters rely heavily on their traditional knowledge of the behavior of their prey and an understanding of ocean and iced conditions. Much of this knowledge has been passed down from hunters of one generation to the next.

Polar bears rely primarily on a diet of ringed seals (Lentfer 1978:222). The bears will spend long hours crouched over seal breathing holes, waiting for a seal to surface for air so they can swipe at them with their powerful paws. Traveling by snowmobile in the early morning hours, the hunters may begin their search by looking for areas where the ice is thin. Thin ice or ice that is "mixed up" (broken ice) may indicate where a polar bear had been hunting ringed seal at an open breathing hole. Also, hunters in pursuit of polar bear may follow a bear's tracks. Experienced hunters are aware the water-filled tracks are still fresh.

Hunting is usually a solitary endeavor, although once in a while two hunters will travel together. When encountered, polar bears are considered naturally shy creatures and are usually not aggressive, but the huge animals must be approached cautiously. The hunter will wait and watch until he is able to get a clean shot, often aiming for the heart. The following recollection from a polar bear hunter illustrates a traditional knowledge of bear behavior and the skills involved in the hunt:

Polar bears are real smart, even they don't see people they know where they are. I learn from polar bears. I first started learning from an 11-footer. He was just standing there, can't go nowhere. I leave my dogs and walk to that bear. There was no wind. I think in my mind for it to go after me and I go behind on iceberg and think and wait and when it got closer, I climb on top of the iceberg. When it saw me, it stood up and I aim at the bear. I shoot it and it took off real fast. Even though I hit it, it run and then I run after it about 100 yards. I climb an iceberg and I never see it. I think I miss it. Then I use my binoculars and I see the bear inside an iceberg. He had gone another 100 yards.

Hunters use small bore cartridges when hunting so as not to ruin the hide. The bears are skinned and butchered on the ice, all the internal organs are left behind. It is well known that the polar bear liver contains dangerously high levels of Vitamin A and is, thus, strictly avoided. The polar bear meat, well liked by some, is boiled for a long time to tenderize it. After the hide is carefully washed with soap, it is rubbed in the snow to further clean the fur and then stretched on racks to dry. The large hide with its thick coarse fur is used for sewing ruffs, mukluks, hats, and mittens.

During the winter months, slightly over one-fourth of the households reported trapping or hunting furbearers. Although the meat is no longer eaten, furbearer trapping and hunting is an efficiently integrated feature of the annual round of resource activities. Small fur-bearing land mammals provide much of the fur used in garments. Their trapping and hunting is frequently done in conjunction with food extractive activities. Since the early 1900s, with the commercial market for furs, furbearer hunting and trapping often includes an income producing component. The pelts of white or red foxes are sometimes sold to a dealer in Seattle or elsewhere for 50 to 75 dollars for a good quality pelt. A few hunters will be fortunate enough to find a wolverine, lynx or mink. Because of its dense, water-resistant fur, wolverines are highly valued locally and rarely sold. They are usually used as ruffs or trim on parkas.

When daylight hours get longer in February, men traveling from the village on snowmobiles or with dog teams to check their traps or to search for moose, also may use the opportunity to hunt for ptarmigan or arctic hare. The soft, snow-white fur of arctic hares is a popular trim on sealskin slippers. Neither the hare nor the ptarmigan meat freeze will, so they are usually hunted for immediate consumption. As the winter stockpile of wild food resources begins to dwindle, ptarmigan and arctic hare are a welcome source of fresh meat. . . .