Excerpted From Alaska Department of Fish and Game Technical Paper No. 114, July 1985.

Cultural and Social Values of Harvesting Wild Resources

Wild resources and their harvesting, processing, and distribution continue to play important roles in the lives of many residents in the subregion, particularly in the smaller communities. Subsistence activities are an important mechanism for maintaining values such as kinship, community respect for elders, hospitality to visitors, and traditional ideological concepts.

Several individuals working in concert usually accomplish the harvest of wild woods in the Bristol Bay region. In many communities, work groups are composed primarily of close relatives. For instance, in New Stuyahok, hunting parties are often based on brother/brother, brother/ brother-in-law, uncle/nephew pairings, though they are also frequently made up of less closely related age-mates. Older men and their young sons or grandsons often do freshwater fishing with nets for whitefish, Dolly Varden, and pike. Berry picking groups are usually composed of female relatives, such as mothers with daughters, daughters-in-law, and their offspring. Processing resources gathered in large quantities, such as salmon and freshwater fish, is done by groups of closely related women with the assistance of male relatives if they are available. The tasks of catching and processing resources draw relatives and friends within the community together in traditional activities. Children learn first by watching, then by assisting, and eventually as full participants. The specific rules filled by women and men follow a sexual division of labor which is characteristic of traditional tasks.

Among newcomers to the region, harvesting and processing work groups are probably composed primarily of nuclear family members, work associates and friends (Morris 1982). Subsistence activities provide these participants with a feeling of belonging to the local area and a measure of self-sufficiency, as well as a means of developing friendships.

In some communities, subsistence products are stored in caches (Wolfe et al. 1984). Often these caches are used by extended families living in several different households. The flow of goods into and out of the cache may be controlled by the elder of the extended family, or access to the cache may be controlled by the elder of the extended family or access to the cache may be unrestricted among members of the extended kin group. Frequent sharing and distribution of large quantities of fish and game is a common feature in many of the communities in the region. Being a proficient supplier of food and other products derived from wild resources has long been one of the primary methods of gaining prestige in local localities. Elders commonly receive gifts of traditional foods both from close kin and from unrelated donors. Invitations to meals and gifts of food are the most common forms of hospitality to visitors and strangers. Subsistence foods are commonly taken along as gifts by visitors to present to those who provide them hospitality. It is a common way for products of one subregion to be shared with other subregions. For example, when Togiak hunters travel to Aleknagig or New Stuyahok to go moose or caribou hunting, they often bring seal oil or other marine mammal products as gifts. Most often when people travel to a different community to hunt or gather berries, they will rely on kin ties in that community to gain access. Such travel and sharing gifts, and subsistence activities renew and strengthen ties among the participants.

Many residents of the Bristol Bay region prefer the taste of traditional wild foods to store-bought foods. This is manifested in the daily diets, in the statements of questioned individuals, and in the celebration of holidays and festivities. Russian Orthodox Christmas, Selavi, is celebrated in many communities throughout the region. One of the most important aspects of Selavi is the feasting from home to home, which occurs as the celebrations rotate from community to community. It is a major concern of hosts to be able to provide sufficient quantities of traditional foods to each guest. Moose, caribou, salmon, and berries prepared in traditional fashion are the most desirable foods to provide to guests. Feasting on native foods is also an important part of Moravian song feasts celebrated by residents of the region in the Togiak and Usushagak Bay subregions and to the north in the Kuskokwim Bay area. These religious celebrations, and the winter and spring festivals held throughout the region, are in many respects the modern counterparts of the traditional winter dance festivals held in the past.

Subsistence activities have been found to be important links to persistent traditional ideologies in other parts of the state (cf. Nelson island Yup'ik, Fienup-Riordan 1983; Upper Koyukok Athapaskan, Nelson 1977). This occurs also for many Bristol Bay communities. Features of the "world-view" of the indigenous cultures of Alaska are very different from the "world-view" about resources held by most North American residents of European descent. For instance, one widespread Alaskan Native belief is that success in fishing and hunting is contingent upon the fulfillment of certain signs of respect toward the fish and game taken. Concepts about property, such as rights of access to tools, labor, the land, and its resources may differ from those prevalent in industrial, western societies. In the past, traditional, customary law regulated access and use of land; and the distribution of harvests, today, it is still common practice for residents of many subregions in Bristol Bay to gain access to neighboring resource areas through kinship or other societies, and to follow local "rules" while hunting, fishing, or gathering there. Under the traditional ideology, wild resources are not the common property of state residents, but are "regulated" by local societies with "laws" governing use by members of the society and by visiting outsiders (cf. Magdanz and Olanna 1984).

Individual resources are imbued with supernatural, as well as earthly characteristics. For example, in the Togiak, Nushagak Bay, and Nushagak River subregions, brown bears are greatly respected not only for their superhuman physical strength and dangerous teeth and claws, but also for their ghost-like qualities such as their ability to hear for miles and to appear from nowhere. The breath of bears is especially feared. One man said it felt like needles poking his skin, and another compared it to sand blasting and said it caused him to be blinded in one eye. People say that hunters who are parents of young children should not kill bears, because the bear's spirit might harm the children. Special precautions are followed when hunting and handling bears. Following traditional practices, after killing a bear, the head should be buried facing the east (Office Files, Division of Subsistence, ADF&G, Dillingham). Because they are such powerful and dangerous animals, the traditional lore and rules concerning brown bears are especially interesting, but the use of most wild resources is similarly imbedded in legend and prescribed behavior.

Subsistence harvests are important in many ways to residents of the Bristol Bay region. The above discussion does not apply equally to all communities, but the connection between subsistence activities and the local culture is evident in all subregions. . . .

TOGIAK SUBREGION

USE OF FISH AND WILDLIFE AND OTHER NATURAL RESOURCES

Species Used and Seasonal Round of Harvest

Residents of the Togiak subregion harvest resources from marine and shoreline habitats, and from rivers, lakes, tundra, and forest. From the ocean and seashore, they harvest seal, walrus, sea lion, several types of fish, herring spawn-on-kelp, waterfowl, seabird's eggs, clams, and other invetebrates, and basket grass. From rivers, several types of salmon and other fish, furbearers, and waterfowl are taken. Tundra in the subregion provides grown bear, tundra hare, ptarmigan, furbearers, and berries. People often travel to other subregions to harvest moose and caribou, though a few are taken within the eastern and northern portion of the Togiak subregion.

Spring harvests begin with the arrival of eiders and emperor geese, and the emergence of brown bear and parky (ground) squirrel. Hunters travel to coastal sites by snowmobile to catch waterfowl and marine mammals. Some hunters head inland to shoot or trap parky squirrel and catch the last ptarmigan of the spring. A few brown bears are also harvested for food at this time. A little later, usually around the first week of May, herring enter nearshore waters to spawn, and the fish are netted to dry or salt for home consumption. Herring spawn-on-kelp is also picked to eat fresh, or is preserved by salting, freezing or drying. Many residents of the subregion participate in the commercial spawn-on-kelp and herring fisheries. Clams are dug at this time, and some hunting of marine mammals and waterfowl occurs while people are camped during the herring season. Later in May or June, eggs of gulls and seabirds are collected.

The arrival of the first kings marks the start of the salmon season. Kings and other species are caught in subsistence nets or are kept out of the commercial catch for home use. In Togiak Bay, incidental catches of halibut, and sometimes flounder, are saved for consumption at home or to be shared in the village. Kings are eaten fresh, frozen, or made into strips. Reds are mostly split and dried. Chums are preferred by some older people because they have less fat and are easier to dry. Silvers are the last to run up the rivers. They are eaten fresh or frozen, though some are salted or dried. Fall red fish (spawned-out red salmon) are a preferred food, taken upriver or in the lakes that feed the Togiak and Igushik Rivers. Dolly Varden is taken throughout the year, but in largest quantities in fall and spring. Smelt, whitefish, pike, and other fish are taken by jigging or in nets from late fall though spring. Berry picking begins in mid-July, with salmonberries, blueberries, huckleberries, blackberries, and lowbush cranberries being gathered as the season progresses.

In August and September, many hunters travel to Nushagak River villages or to Aleknagik to gain access to hunting areas for moose or caribou, usually being accompanied on the hunt by a relative living in that area. Some moose hunting is done along local rivers and lakes, but few moose are available in these areas. Spotted (harbor) seal, waterfowl, small mammals, and a few brown bear are taken within the subregion. Later in the fall and in winter, hunters travel to neighboring subregions by airplane or snowmobile to hunt caribou.

During the winter, trapping and shooting furbearers occur. Beaver, red fox, and river otter are the most common species taken. Beaver is important as a source of food, as well as fur. When ice is in Togiak Bay in late winter, bearded seal and ringed seal are available to hunters in addition to spotted seal, walrus, and sea lion which are present year-round. As the ice moves out of the bay, the spring migration of eider ducks and emperor geese begins, and the seasonal cycle starts again. . . .

NUSHAGAK BAY SUBREGION

USE OF FISH AND WILDLIFE AND OTHER NATURAL RESOURCES

Species Used and Seasonal Round of Harvest

Many residents of the subregion rely on local marine, freshwater, and terrestrial resources. They harvest marine mammals, waterfowl, clams, salmon, and a variety of other fish from Nushagak Bay and neighboring coastal areas. Salmon, a number of other types of fish, and waterfowl are harvested in the bay, from rivers, and lakes. They harvest moose, porcupine, spruce grouse, ptarmigan, furbearers, berries and firewood from the forests. From the tundra, caribou, ptarmigan, furbearers, and berries are taken.

Although many Dillingham residents are new to the region and a relatively large portion are committed to full-time jobs, many participate in the traditional and common pattern of resource harvest activities of the subregion. Beginning with breakup in spring, the annual cycle starts with waterfowl hunting around Nushagak Bay and along the rivers and lakes. Hunters travel down the bay to intercept flights of eiders and emperor geese. Seals are hunted at the same time. In late April, parky squirrel and a few brown bear are harvested in the vicinity of the Wood River lakes soon after they emerge from hibernation. Some families travel to the Kulukak and Togiak coastal areas to harvest herring and herring eggs on kelp, clams, sea mammals, waterfowl, and bird eggs--often in conjunction with commercial herring fishing.

The first king salmon are usually caught in set nets along the Nushagak Bay in late May. The king run stretches through June and July, and these fish are the most eagerly sought salmon for eating fresh, freezing, smoking, and salting. Reds run from late June through late July and are the next most popular salmon. They are primarily dried, or frozen. Chums and pinks also run in summer. Silvers pass through the bay in August and September, and are caught in set nets or with rod and reel, with most eaten fresh or frozen. Trout, Dolly Varden, and grayling are caught in lakes and rivers with rod and reel during summer months.

Salmonberries are the first berries to ripen in summer. Large quantities of this favorite berry are picked in the Nushagak Bay area in July and early August. Blueberries, huckleberries, blackberries, and lowbush cranberries are also sought as they ripen later in the summer and fall.

Caribou and moose hunting begins in late summer and early fall. Most caribou hunters travel inland, up the Nushagak and Mulchatna Rivers. Moose hunters also head upriver or to the Weed River lakes. In fall, most hunters use skiffs or other fishing boats for transportation, although increasing numbers of Dillingham residents fly. In winter, snowmobiles or airplanes are used. Some hunters travel to the Alaska Peninsula by air. Some fall waterfowl hunting takes place around Nushagak Bay, but many Dillingham residents prefer to fly down the Alaska Peninsula to hunt geese. Seal are also taken in the fall when hunters are travelling about the bay by boat.

As ice begins for form in rivers and lakes, nets re set for whitefish and smelt. Smelt are also dip netted around the bay. Following freeze-up, people jig for Dolly Varden, lake trout, and pike up in the Wood River Lakes area. Nets are set throughout the winter near Aleknagik for whitefish, Dolly Varden, and Burbot. In late winter, jigging in lower river areas near Nushagak Bay catches smelt. A few people still set traps for blackfish.

Many Nushagak Bay residents trap furbearers. Beaver, land otter, and red fox are caught in greatest numbers. Beaver meat is an important late winter food in the smaller communities and for some residents of Dillingham. Small mammals and birds are taken at various times throughout the year. Porcupines are taken whenever they are encountered, but are most desired in late fall. Spruce grouse are primarily hunted in September and October. Ptarmigan are hunted when they form large flocks in late winter. Firewood is gathered year-round. Wood-heated steambaths are a common and frequently used feature throughout the subregion. . . .

NUSHAGAK RIVER SUBREGION

USE OF FISH, WILDLIFE AND OTHER NATURAL RESOURCES

Species Used and Seasonal Round of Harvest

Residents of the four communities of the subregion appear to use a similar variety of wild resources. They have access to resources in mixed spruce-deciduous forest, tundra, riverine, and lake environments. From the forests, they commonly take moose, porcupine, snowshoe hare, furbearers, spruce grouse, berries, firewood, and some wild vegetables and herbs. On the tundra, they harvest caribou, arctic hare, furbearers, ptarmigan, berries, and some herbs and vegetables. From the waters of the subregion come furbearers, waterfowl, salmon, and many other types of freshwater and andronamous fish. . . . .

In the spring, following breakup of the river ice, gillnets are set in sloughs for whitefish and pike. Most of the catch is split and dried for use during the summer when many fish camp residents are without refrigeration. Following traditional practice, some meat from caribou and moose is also dried about this time and stored for use in summertime. Waterfowl are hunted as they return from their wintering grounds in the south. Spring is the only time geese are readily available on the river, and they are eagerly sought. As people prepare for salmon fishing, some make use of fresh, spring growth of wild celery and fiddlehead ferns. Wild spinach is also picked for a few meals during summer

The first king salmon are caught in gillnets near the village, usually at the end of May, and are widely shared to be eaten fresh. The bulk of the kings are caught at fish camps or near the village in set gillnets and split, cut dried, and smoked to make "strips," the favorite form of preserved salmon.

Some are eaten fresh or frozen whole to be cooked later. Heads and bellies may be salted or dried for dog food. Red salmon run next, primarily from mid June to mid July. They are split, scored, lightly smoked, and dried to make "dry fish," the staple form of preserved salmon. They are also eaten fresh, and a few may be frozen. Heads are sometimes fermented, as they were traditionally to make "sticky heads." Some heads and backbones are also dried for dog food. Dog (chum) salmon are also caught in nets, especially by owners of dog teams who dry them for dog food. Pink salmon are caught in set gillnets or on rod and reel and consumed fresh or frozen. A few pinks may be smoked. Silvers are the last salmon to head upriver to spawn in August or early September. They are caught in set gillnets near the villages and also with rod and reel. Silvers are eaten fresh, frozen to be cooked later, smoked, or salted.

In mid July, salmonberries begin to ripen on the tundra. These are the preferred berry for use in agutaq ("eskimo ice-cream") Blackberries and blueberries are picked a little later, and lowbush cranberries are gathered until snow falls. The berries are frozen as picked or made into agutaq and frozen. Cranberries are also cooked into a pudding or sauce. Some grayling, pike, and rainbow trout are caught with rod and reel in August and September and eaten fresh; but the bulk of freshwater fish, whitefish, pike, suckers, and grayling, are caught later in the fall. Gillnets are set in late September and October for whitefish; with substantial incidental catches of pike and suckers, and grayling, caught later in the fall. Gillnets are set in late September and October for whitefish, with substantial incidental catches of pike and suckers. Most of these netted fish are frozen for later consumption. Suckers are primarily used for dog food, but some people eat heads and soft-dry fish. Spawned-out red salmon, called "red fish," are also netted in the fall for drying or freezing. These spawned-out fish are easily dried and are the preferred dried fish for eating with seal oil. Long-distance trips are often taken in fall to net whitefish and sometimes lake trout. As ice begins to run in the river, a few people put out baited set lines for burbot. Just following freeze-up, people jig with hook and line for grayling, freezing the catch. Through the winter, some jigging and under-ice netting of freshwater fish takes place.

Caribou and moose are hunted from skiffs in the fall. Much of the fall-caught meat is distributed within the community and eaten fresh. Ducks and a few geese are also taken in the fall. Once the river is frozen and snow cover is adequate, hunters travel by snowmobile to catch big game. Moose are especially sought for use during the celebration of Russian Orthodox Christmas (Selavi) in mid January. Caribou are hunted as long as snow and ice conditions permit travel by snowmobile. Most meat is eaten fresh or frozen.

Trapping is another wintertime activity. Some early winter sets are made for land otter, red fox, mink, lynx, and a few) other species; but most trapping activity occurs later in winter during beaver season. Beaver is the primary furbearer sought for commercial sale. In addition, almost all of the meat is eaten either fresh, frozen, or partially dried and smoked. Partially dried beaver meat is eaten during late spring and early summer when other sources of red meat are not readily available. Some beaver skins are used locally in manufacturing hats and mitts.

Small game is taken year-round. Porcupines are taken whenever they are encountered. Young boys snare a few snowshoe hare. Tundra hare are occasionally hunted near the village or taken incidentally while out after the other game. Spruce grouse are hunted in the woods near the village, and ptarmigan are caught on the tundra in winter or in the brush along river channels in late winter.

Firewood is collected year-round. Dry, standing dead spruce is the preferred wood for steambaths. Some homes are heated by firewood, and most cabins at fish camps depend on wood for heat. Wood cutting, hauling, and splitting is primarily done by young men and boys. Wood is constantly in demand for steambaths are used almost daily. . . .

ILIAMNA LAKE SUBREGION

USE OF FISH AND WILDLIFE AND OTHER NATURAL RESOURCES

Species Used and Seasonal Round of Harvest

The subregion supports populations of fish and game species common to interior forests, subarctic tundra, and river and lake environments.

Of the species used, sockeye salmon, moose, and caribou provide the bulk of the food harvested by residents of the Iliamna Lake area (Behnke 1982). In addition a number of freshwater species including lake trout, grayling, pike, rainbow trout, several species of whitefish, and Dolly Varden are important in the diet of residents of several communities. Beaver, porcupine, and waterfowl are particularly important during spring and fall when other game may be scarce. A few black bear and brown bear are also harvested and continue to be used as a traditional source of food by some area residents. Most residents throughout the area use large quantities of many species of berries. Many residents rely on local spruce and birch for heating their homes and steambaths. Some use of local timber also occurs in construction.

Late spring has traditionally been a time of resource scarcity in the Iliamna lake area. Some salmon preserved by smoking and drying from the previous year's harvest may remain, but it is likely that this supply is limited and that quality is deteriorating. Some moose or caribou meat may remain from winter hunts. However, thawing snow conditions and the dispersed distribution of these species contribute to make spring hunting difficult. Snowmobiles continue to be used as long as there is adequate snow cover, and lake and river ice is solid. Skiffs are used to reach spring harvesting locations after breakup. Freshwater fish, waterfowl, beaver and muskrat are the main target species during this season. Large numbers of whitefish are harvested by intercepting the migration of these fish back to small tundra lakes. Hunting for migratory fowl contributes fresh meat during this season, and beaver is hunted as the spring thaw progresses.

Salmon fishing is the main activity during early and mid summer. Members of many families travel to the Naknek area to participate in the short commercial salmon season from late June through mid July. Beluga and seal may be harvested while in the coastal areas. People begin to put up subsistence salmon during this time. An initial stock of dried fish may be stored, in case conditions for putting up fish are not good later in the season. Often families put up salmon at fish camps located near good fishing locations. A number of families may share a fish camp location. Other activities include fishing for trout, grayling, and other freshwater fish, porcupine hunting, and gathering edible plants.

Late summer and fall are seasons of major resource harvest activity. Commercial fishing is over, and attention focuses on putting up a good supply of food for winter months. Families continue to fish for sockeye salmon and to process fish as late as September. The major varieties of berries ripen during August and September, and families travel to places known to be good for berries during these months. Hunters travel very extensively throughout the subregion searching the lakeshores and riverbanks for moose. The usual mode of travel is by open 16-to 18-foot aluminum skiff powered by a 20- to 50-horsepower outboard engine.

Winter is a period of intermittent resource harvest activity. Major fishing does not occur again until the coming spring. The main activities include hunting, trapping, and maintenance of hunting and fishing gear. Weather and travel conditions, fish and game regulations, resource distribution and sharing, adequacy of food preserved earlier in the year, holidays, and alternate employment have major effects on harvest effort and success. Small game including ptarmigan, hare, spruce grouse, and porcupine are taken near the communities or when encountered while traveling. Freshwater fish are taken by jigging though the ice, particularly early and late in the winter. Some ice fishing with nets occurs. Grayling, lake trout, pike, whitefish, and Dolly Varden are species commonly caught. As previously mentioned, trapping has declined in recent years. Some members of all communities continue to maintain traplines, however. Beaver is the species most actively trapped; although fox, lynx, river otter, wolf, and wolverine are also taken. Several residents of Iliamna and Port Alsworth use private aircraft to trap. The high value many families place on beaver meat adds impetus to trapping for this species, even in years when prices for beaver pelts are low. . . .

UPPER ALASKA PENINAULA SUBREGION

USE OF FISH AND WILDLIFE AND OTHER NATURAL RESOURCES

Species Used and Seasonal Round of Harvest

The Upper Alaska Peninsula provides a wide variety of natural resources, many of which are, or have been, used by local residents for domestic consumption. Salmon, caribou, and moose are the three staples. Among the other land mammals utilized are arctic hare, snowshoe hare, beaver, and porcupine. Additionally, river otter, muskrat, lynx, wolf, wolverine, red fox, and other furbearers are taken.

The resource harvest calendar begins when breakup occurs in spring, and waterfowl return to the area. Though the exact time varies from year to year, by March or April, the rivers and bays are usually ice-free. Beluga and gulls are two of the early arrivals. Formerly, groups of men drove the beluga onto sandbars in local rivers where the animals became stranded with the outgoing tide. Both meat and blubber were used. Today, there is little active beluga hunting. Beached whales are occasionally used if still in good condition when discovered. The flippers are a delicacy. Traditionally, spring was an active waterfowl hunting period as the birds stopped during migration to regroup and feed. Spring is also a favorite time for clam digging. Butter clams found locally, and razor clams from the pacific coast can be taken any season when the waters are ice-free; however, clam digging is particularly good in spring when tides are frequently very low. Although not a great deal of seal hunting is undertaken by residents of the Upper Peninsula subregion, early spring is a preferred time for hunting. Wild vegetables are also gathered at this time. Fishing for Dolly Varden and rainbow trout occurs, and an occasional porcupine is taken.

In May, the return of the salmon is anticipated, and gear is prepared. Subsistence salmon fishing gear consists of set gillnets. The first king caught is typically shared with friends and family. In 1982, the first king caught by a local resident of South Nankeen was shared with a total of nine households, which included 25 people (office files, Division of Subsistence, King Salmon). Kings traditionally are a highly valued resource in this subregion because of the large amount of meat on the fish, the high quality of smoked strips, and the timing of the run which allows families to put up fish before the onset of the commercial salmon fishing season. Families that do not participate in the commercial fishery generally set fewer king nets, but often increased effort if devoted to catching kings with rod and reel. Subsistence fishing effort increases as the sockeye run nears. Commercial fishermen frequently elect to keep salmon harvested with commercial gear for family consumption. Keeping fish from a commercial catch is convenient because it allows the family to keep only the amount and species desired, and the remainder can be sold. Kings are often obtained in this manner for home use.

Sockeye subsistence fishing continued through July. Also around this time, the first of the year's berries begin ripening. Salmonberries are the first picked, followed closely by blueberries and then crowberries (blackberries). Berries are picked by entire families, by groups of women, or by individual women. Berries are gathered by gallons, and long distances are traversed to take advantage of productive locations.

The month of August brings renewed interest in salmon fishing as the silvers begin arriving. They are caught with rod and reel and with gillnet. The run comes after the commercial sockeye run when time is available for processing resources for home consumption. Silvers are a favored species for making salt fish. Individuals desiring pink or chum salmon set their nets during July or August. Not only is August and important month for fish and berry harvesting, it also marks the beginning of the caribou hunting season. Caribou are desirable at this time of year for several reasons: They provide a change from a fish diet; the gulls are fat; and it is possible to use a skiff for transportation. The biggest disadvantage to the early hunting season is the difficulty of preserving the meat in the warm weather. Families without refrigeration or freezers must use the meat immediately. Moose and waterfowl hunting seasons begin in September. Hunting ducks and geese is generally good, and waterfowl is a resource used by many local residents. Hare, porcupine, and grouse are also hunted during this time.

A number of families fish as late in September and October for spawned-out salmon, locally referred to as "fall" or "red" fish. Drying preserves these fish. For a short while during this time of year, conditions are sometimes right for dip netting smelt. Only a few individuals participate in the harvest, but the smelt are widely distributed among households.

As the weather turns colder and water beings to freeze, attention turns again to caribou hunting. Frozen rivers provide increased access to hunting areas, unavailable during the inbetween season when use of skiffs and land vehicles is not feasible. When a December cow moose season is allowed, people take advantage of the opportunity. Hare, porcupine, and ptarmigan are hunted throughout the winter months. When conditions are right, people catch large numbers of smelt jigging through the ice on rivers near the various settlements. Trapping furbearers at this time is undertaken on a limited scale throughout most of the subregion. Winter activities continue until the lengthening days portend the approach of spring. . . .

CHIGNIK SUBREGION

USE OF FISH, WILDLIFE AND OTHER NATURAL RESOURCES

Species Used and Seasonal Round of Harvest

Of the variety of species used by the residents of the Chignik subregion, salmon, caribou, and moose provide the greatest amount of food in terms of weight (Evergreen State College 1977). Though these three species are the ones most frequently mentioned with reference to local domestic use, many other locally available natural resources add to the diets of the residents. Residents of Chignik Lake and Perryville use brown bear. Residents in all of the communities harvest ducks, particularly pintails and green-winged teal, geese (mainly emperors), and ptarmigan. Marine resource such as halibut crab, shrimp, octopus, clams, and mussels are used. Wild vegetables, berries, and seagull eggs are gathered at various times of the year. . . .

The end of may marks the first period of activity in each year's subsistence salmon fishing effort. People begin checking equipment and gear. Seining and gillnetting are the common methods of harvesting subsistence salmon. For the commercial fishing families that move from Chignik Lake, Perryville, and Ivanof Bay to Chignik Bay or Chignik Lagoon for the commercial salmon season, salmon for home consumption are first harvested at these locations during the first half of June. Many families concentrate on processing fish while simultaneously preparing for the commercial fishing season. Families remaining in Perryville and Ivanof Bay, fish streams near the village. Once the commerical fishing season opens, men and older boys leave for the fishing grounds; while remaining family members continue to harvest and process subsistence catches. Catches of halibut and other marine resources are taken incidentally in small numbers in commercial salmon seines. Halibut is occasionally taken with hand lines. Seal are sometimes harvested during spring and summer. Some wild vegetables are picked as they appear in the early spring and summer months. Wild celery and spinach are two varieties of greens noted for use in all the communities (Nabesky et al. 1983). Cottonwood and alder are gathered for use in the smokehouses. As summer continues, berries begin ripening. Groups of women, children, or entire families make trips out around the community to collect blackberries, salmonberries, blueberries, and cranberries (Tuten 1976).

August marks the opening of the caribou season. In late summer, caribou are often hunted in areas accessible by commercial fishing vessel. Three wheelers, taken aboard the boats, are used for travelling inland from the bars where the boats are anchored. In some instances, hunting takes place in conjunction with commercial fishing activities. Other times, men take younger boys and family members out on trips that are viewed specifically as hunting ventures. Early fall is also a time for moose hunting, most often along waterways reached with skiffs or fishing boats. The families that have moved back to Ivanoff Bay, Perryville, and Chignik Lake make greater use of skiffs and three wheelers for moose and caribou hunting than they do of fishing boats. As access to caribou grounds is harder for the residents of Chignik Bay and Chignik Lagoon, more effort is placed on moose hunting. Drainages emptying into the Pacific Ocean and accessible by fishing boat are the favored hunting areas for these hunters. For local residents with private aircraft, greater distances are covered to gain access to good hunting grounds.

September marks the beginning of waterfowl season. Ducks and geese are used in every community. The Pacific side of the Alaska Peninsula does not attract the large numbers of migrating waterfowl that the Bering Sea estuaries attract; however, the Pacific coastline, bays, and river drainages normally provide an opportunity to procure a limited number of waterfowl. Chignik Lake residents maintain kinship links with Port Heiden and Pilot Point, both locations of exceptionally productive waterfowl hunting; trips are made to these communities during fall season to harvest geese.

A few brown bear are harvested in the late fall just before they go into hibernation, principally for the fat. Late fall is also a time for continued subsistence fishing. "Fall fish" are a preferred type of salmon. They are taken upstream after the fish have lost most of their fat and will air-dry easily. Chignik Lake is a favorite place to catch silvers that are preserved by drying or salting. Small mammals are also hunted. Often, after school, boys take three wheelers and skirt the village looking foe hare or porcupine. Ptarmigan hunting is a late fall or winter activity. The birds are often driven down by snow from the higher elevations and become more accessible at this time of year.

The year-round open water of the pacific allows for continual harvest of marine resources, such as halibut, clams, octopus, mussels, and seals. Crabs are a favored winter resource and are taken from commercial and subsistence pots.

Other winter activities include ice fishing, particularly in Chignik Lake, where fishing for Dolly Varden takes place on the lake in front of the village. According to residents of the Chignik subregion, low pelt prices and time constraints caused by a strong participation in commercial fishing are the primary factors contributing to the diminishing effort directed toward trapping (Tuten 1976).

As winter gives way to spring, plans once again focus on the upcoming salmon season. There is a slower pace to resource harvesting. Spring bears are occasionally taken; the meat at this time of the year is said to be particularly tender because of the long inactive period of the animal. Seal, sea lion, or walrus are taken close to home communities if the opportunity presents itself. Fishing with hook and line or seining for Dolly Varden provides a change of pace for some of the residents. As May nears, the annual cycle of events is once again repeated. . . .

LOWER ALASKA PENINSUAL SUBREGION

USE OF FISH, WILDLIFE, AND OTHER NATURAL RESOURCES

Species Used in Seasonal Round of Harvest

Residents of the Lower Peninsula Subregion have access to a wide variety of marine resources. Of these, salmon is probably the resource harvested in greatest quantities. Other aquatic resources used include: crab, halibut, shrimp, seal, sea lion, clams, octopus, cod, sea urchins, and mussels. Among the land mammals, caribou is an important food source for local residents. Waterfowl are harvested during the fall. Dolly Varden is caught, and seagull eggs are gathered in the spring. A variety of food plants and berries are also used throughout the subregion. . . .

Early summer, the months of May and June, marks the beginning of the salmon season for both commercial and subsistence fishing. Salmon are often kept for home use from a household's commercial catch. If not procured in this manner, subsistence salmon are harvested with set gillnets or beach seines. Kings, sockeyes, and silvers are three species most frequently harvested. In Sand Point, gillnets are located near the village. King Cove residents used beach seines. Salmon, particularly kings and sockeyes, are eaten fresh during the early part of the run. For later use, salmon is frozen, smoked, and dried, canned, or salted. Some families continue to process the backs and heads of chum and pink salmon for traditional uses, such as "choomlaw," an Aleut dish.

Fall is the most intensive period for subsistence activities. As the commercial salmon season slows down, people take opportunity to harvest resources for their own use. Berries become available toward the latter part of summer, and groups of women, children, or entire families gather large quantities of the valued food source. The favored berries of the subregion include: blueberries, salmonberries, crowberries (blackberries), strawberries, and cranberries. They are used fresh or preserved by freezing or jarring for later in the year. August and September are the times when many people process silvers, a preferred salmon species in the area. August also marks the opening of the caribou season, and many households begin hunting for fresh meat. Various forms of transportation are used in harvesting efforts: skiffs, commercial fishing boats, off-road vehicles, highway vehicles, and airplanes. Commercial fishing boats are also used to scout the shores of bays for caribou. Fall waterfowl are highly prized food resources in all the communities of the Lower Alaska Peninsula. Hunting begins in September when the season opens and continues throughout fall.

Seal hunting, while feasible throughout the year, most frequently occurs during winter months. Seal oil is used as a condiment with dried fish, and seal meat may be boiled or roasted (Reed 1981). Sea lion are taken occasionally, and sea lion flippers are considered a delicacy. Blubber and meat are occasionally used from whales that have recently washed up on the beach. Commercial crab fishing takes place in the fall and winter months; vessels coming home often have catches to share with family and friends. With the ice-free ocean conditions, crab and a number of other marine resources are available for harvest during winter. Pots for shellfish are put out on a year-round basis. In addition, octopus, bidarkis, sea urchins, shrimp, and clams are harvested on a regular basis. Halibut and cod are frequently taken when commercial fishing. At other times, a special trip may be made by local residents for the express purpose of fishing for these species.

Spring months are a time of limited resource harvest. Some commercial fishermen go out for herring; others begin getting their gear and boats readied for the upcoming commercial salmon season. As birds begin nesting, a few eggs are gathered on nearby islands. When edible greens become available, they too are gathered. Today, these plants are mainly used fresh in a variety of soups and chowders, although in the past they were often dried for use during the winter months. Occasionally, older residents do this today. Beach celery, called "Pushky," is a commonly used green, as is wild parsley, "petrouski." Petrouski is a favored condiment used with salmon. . . .