Seasonal Round of Harvesting Activities

The harvest of fish, wildlife, and plants in the Yakutat area follows a regular yearly cycle based upon the seasonal availability of resources and conditions that make harvesting economical and efficient. Often wage employment and other activities are scheduled or modified to allow for harvest of resources, as provided by natural cycles and the changing seasons. The knowledge of these seasonal resource gathering opportunities is widespread throughout the community. The seasonal appearance of certain wildlife species is an annual recurring pattern generally predictable from year to year. Yakutat residents monitor a variety of environmental clues that help them predict when and where a resource can be found. The arrival of candlefish to Monti Bay, for example, announces the soon to follow king salmon. Once the king salmon have arrived in Monti Bay, local people know that in one or two weeks these fish will be available in the river at Dry Bay. The knowledge of these clues, and the precise prediction of the optimal time to harvest, becomes even more critical with resources such as herring spawn, which have a very short harvest period. Since the availability of herring spawn is short lived, residents must learn the clues that instruct them when to place hemlock branches into the water or when to check kelp for eggs.

Even though the seasonal round is a predictable pattern, variations in this cycle occur from year to year. The abundance of resources can also change each year depending on ecological factors. The weather conditions that occur seasonally can influence the timing of an activity. Fishing and seal hunting on the ocean is more productive during the spring when the weather is generally better. Snow depth assists a hunter in tracking an animal, or at times concentrates animals in smaller areas that may help to increase success in harvesting.

In recent years, regulations also have had an impact on the location and timing of harvest activities. The seasonal round of activities observed in 1984 was often conditioned by regulations that control the timing of activities. Sometimes, these controls correspond to patterns of resource use that have traditionally occurred. Often times, for reasons that may include administrative convenience or efficiency, regulations restrict an activity to a time period that may not include an entire natural cycle. It is important to recognize these external controls when reviewing seasonal round information. Also, it is important to understand that the information presented here may not fully represent cycles of previous year's activities, but was constructed on the basis of information gathered during 1984.

Many of the activities in Yakutat revolved around the timing of salmon runs in the area. Since the late coho run is usually over by the end of January, a good starting point for describing a new seasonal round is February or late winter after most of the late salmon have spawned. At this time, the land is typically receiving heave snows. . . .

Late Winter (February-March)

Winter weather in Yakutat can be highly variable. In 1985, the month of January brought over 30 inches of rain and mild temperatures; but by the end of February, the temperature had cooled enough to accumulate close to eight feet of snow on the ground. In February, the Situk, Italio, and the Alsek Rivers begin to fill with runs of eulachon. Depending on the depth of snow, a highway vehicle or snowmobile is used to travel from Yakutat to the Situk River for netting these fish. Trapping furbearers, which begins in fall, continues through the late winter. Moose hunting on the Nunatak Bench is an activity that a few hardy groups of individuals take advantage of in February. The hunt takes place near Russell Fiord 30 miles north of Yakutat in an area close to the glaciers of Saint Elias Mountains. Heavy snows in the winter usually drive the moose down to the shoreline where they can be hunted efficiently and packed to a boat. Groups of men travel together in boats and set up camp near the hunting site for usually for a week or two, depending on when the wind, weather, and ice in the bay allow the hunters to return to Yakutat. Aside from this moose hunt and a few trappers who operate out of winter camps, most of the late winter activities are based out of Yakutat.

The islands immediately northwest of Yakutat are often referred to by local residents as the "icebox." The icebox is a dependable source of a variety of intertidal rsources, many of which are available year-round. Because of the convenient proximity to Yakutat, many of the resources that are harvested from these islands are not stored in large quantities, but are harvested, as needed. During late winter, clams, cockles, gumboots, sea urchins, sea scallops, shrimp, and crab are harvested mainly form the islands. Marine bottom fish including halibut and cod are also available and are harvested, as they are needed throughout the year. By late winter, herring begin to school near the islands and are netted for food, as well as for bait to be used in salmon fishing. Shortly, after the herring arriver, winter king salmon are available and are harvested by trolling the waters near the islands. Although the winter king salmon are not available in large numbers, they provide some cash during the winter months for commercial trollers and are a highly desired source of fresh salmon for local consumption. Harbor seal are also harvested in the protected waters of the islands and nearby haulouts. Seals are distributed throughout the community to Native, as well as non-Native households. Nearly every part of the seal has some use, and the knowledge and skills in handling and preparing seal products are prevalent among Native elders of the community. Fresh fish such as ocean run rainbow trout, known as steelhead, are available in upland rivers during late winter. Many of the rivers of the Yakutat Forelands are free of ice for much of the winter. The Situk River, the most common source of steelhead, has fish available in the fall, late winter, and spring. Ptarmigan are hunted in the unforested areas near the glaciers, although in recent years, the success in finding these birds is reported low.

Winter is also a desirable time for many Yakutat residents to locate seasonal cash employment in town. This is especially true for commercial set gillnet fishers who usually do not have their first season opening until June, but remain extremely busy through September. Winter jobs are sometimes found with local construction projects, government services, or local businesses in town.

When not active with hunting, fishing or wage employment that may be available around, Yakutat, residents spend many hours digging out from the several feet of snow that can fall during late winter. During March 1985, snow had to be dig away from some windowpanes to avoid the weight of snow from breaking the glass. In 1972, over 300 inches of snow fell in Yakutat (NOAA 1983).

Spring (April-May)

With the arrival of the longer days and warmer temperatures of the spring months, the pace of activities in Yakutat begins to pick up. Despite deep snow that can remain on the ground through spring, preparations begin for the summer fishing season. Clues that help to predict the availability of ocean resources are closely monitored.

Gathering from the intertidal zone around the Yakutat Bay islands intensifies during spring when additional resources become available. Herring spawn their eggs onto live kelp or branches of hemlock that are placed into the water. The harvest of herring spawn must take place within a few days after the spawning begins during may before the eggs mature. Black and ribbon seaweed are picked at low tide during May shortly after the spring growth reaches a useable size, but before it becomes tough and less palatable. Octopus is also taken at low tide during spring and is highly desirable for food, as well as for bait for halibut fishing. Dungeness crab again becomes abundant around the mudflats near Yakutat. In the spring, crabs are harvested from the ocean bottom in small pots, or picked from beaches during low tides.

Marine bottom fish are harvested as needed, and residents begin halibut jigging and setting halibut hooks, as this fish becomes more plentiful in spring. In 1984, the average harvest by households active in halibut fishing was 175 pounds.

In late May, king salmon begin schooling around the Situk, Alsek Rivers and the island area, and are caught with troll gear for both commercial and home use. Subsistence nets are placed into the rivers as spawning king salmon begin to travel upriver. Rod and reel are also used to harvest kings from the rivers, but usually not until June after the salmon are out of the sloughs and into the river. Past regulations have prohibited subsistence net fishing once the commercial fishing begins in the rivers. It has been important that subsistence fishing households without commercial permits fish in late May and early June to avoid having to wait until September or October to legally fish with a subsistence net.

Yakutat is located along a waterfowl migratory path so many of the birds that spend the summer in northern Alaska pass through in the spring going north and in the fall heading south. Most of the waterfowl hunting presently takes place during the fall since regulations allow only a fall hunt. Historically, Yakutat people harvested waterfowl on their northern migration during the spring, as well. In 1984, an occasional bird was harvested during the spring if a household had a speical need at that time. Gulls and terns nest on the beaches and small islands in the area. These birds are watched closely, and some of their eggs are harvested shortly after they are laid, usually during the month of May.

Seals are also harvested during the spring, as they are during other times of the year. Spring brings better ocean weather for traveling, and it is possible to safely (but cautiously) travel up Yakutat Bay in a small skiff and hunt seals that are concentrated near the glacier. In 1984, most Yakutat seal hunters traveled to the area for a couple of days or made a day trip to the hunt, returning to Yakutat in the evening.

Yakutat residents report that in years prior to the arrival of moose to the Yakutat Forelands, they harvested both brown and black bears more frequently than they do today. Spring was considered the best time to hunt the bears since they were easier to find, and the meat was better tasting. Bears were often taken near their winter dens and occasionally from within their dens by the bolder hunters. In 1984, residents still preferred to harvest bears in the spring shortly after they left their winter den. Both black bear and brown bear meat is eaten, although black bear meat is preferred over brown bear. . . .

Summer (June-August)

During the summer, most of the activities of the community center on salmon fishing. Of the 50 households randomly surveyed, 42 percent said they fished commercially for salmon, and 92 percent used noncommercial caught salmon in 1984. During spring and early summer, these Yakutat households are busy preparing for the approaching fishing season. Set gillnets are repaired, wooden skiffs are refinished, and outboard motors are tuned. Fish camp cabins that were towed away from the ocean's edge for protection from winter storms are relocated along the river mouths, and tent frames are prepared for the season. . . . Residents who do not have a commercial fishing permit need to harvest salmon prior to the opening of the commercial season. On the Situk River, king salmon are harvested in late May and early June, and sockeye are caught in early June by means of subsistence set gillnets. The commercial set gillnet fishing season in recent years has opened in mid June and continued until October. Often times on the Situk River, the subsistence fishers in May and early June are the same people who fish commercially from June to October. Commercial fishers also use the same fishing sites and equipment. Commercial fishing households often retain small portions of their commercial catch for home use, usually fish that are damaged, or valued less on the commercial market. However, in 1984, over half of the households surveyed did not have a commercial fishing permit and needed to obtain salmon for home use by means of a subsistence net, usable only when the commercial fishery was closed, or rod and reel, useable at most times. Many of the commercial fishers also fish during the subsistence openings to obtain salmon for home use.

The sockeye runs continue on most rivers of the Yakutat Forelands from June until the first part of August. Commercial fishers in Yakutat often fish the earlier portion of the run close to Yakutat on the Situk River. In recent years, since the runs have been poor on the Situk, many fishers move to other river systems that are considered more productive by July. The East River near Dry Bay or the Italio or Akwe Rivers on the Yakutat Forelands are often the choices. The decision when and if to move form the Situk is often a difficult one because of the expense of the move and uncertainty of the success. For example, in order to move from the Situk River to the East River, a fisher must transport gear and camp fifty miles down the coast by air (an expensive trip) or by skiff on open ocean waters (often a dangerous trip). The time lost and expenses of the move have to be considered along with other factors such as other competition for set sites in the area, strength of runs, length of fishing openings, and time spent away from Yakutat and family. Despite the cost, many Yakutat commercial fishers move their camps. . . .

Pink and chum salmon are harvested during mid or late summer on a few rivers in the area by the commercial set netters, although sockeye and coho are the mainstay of their livelihoods. By mid August, the effort shifts to the harvest of coho (silver) salmon. Many fishers return to the Situk for a few weeks and then move to camps north of Yakutat, along the Manby shore, Yahtse River near icy Bay, and the Tsiu and Kaliak Rivers north of Cape Yakataga in pursuit of coho. Yakutat residents normally are busy with these fisheries until the end of September or the beginning of October.

A smaller portion of the community is involved in commercial trolling for salmon. This takes place in the ocean waters of Yakutat Bay and the coastal waters near Yakutat. King and coho salmon are the target species of this gear type. . . .

Along with salmon, most commercial fishing harvests, whether they are set gillnets or troll catches, harvest incidental fish that are not locally marketable to commercial buyers. These fish are often kept for home use and include flounder, trout, Dolly Varden and bottom fish. In 1984, commercial buyers were not purchasing pink salmon; so incidentally caught pinks were also used at home, although not in large quantities.

The salmon preferred by local residents are sockeye (red) coho (silver) and kings (Chinook). These fish are all harvested by subsistence set gillnets. King and coho salmon are also harvested by rod and reel both from the river systems, as well as ocean waters. Pink and chum salmon are used within the community, but not in the quantities of the other salmon.

Berry picking also occurs in the summer around Yakutat and near the summer fish camps. A variety of berries are available. The most common include strawberry, salmonberry, nagoonberry, high bush cranberry, blueberry and huckleberry. Other plants that are also harvested during the summer include ferns, beach greens, mushrooms, wild celery and Indian rice.

Seal hunting continues through the summer is often conducted along with commercial fishing as the opportunity arises. Dungeness crab and intertidal shellfish are frequently harvested throughout the summer, as are Dolly Varden, char and, occasionally, northern pike. Marine bottom fish, especially halibut, are taken in a short commercial fishery in early summer and throughout the summer for home use.

Fall (September-October)

In the fall, a late run of coho salmon known as "red fish" are harvested in small creeks near Yakutat. Red fish are taken through mid winter and are especially valued by Native residents for their special flavor. During August, September, and October, mountain goats are hunted in a few specific areas away from the community of Yakutat. Goats have frequently been harvested from the cliff areas near Icy Bay. . . .

Black bears are still hunted in the fall, although many residents prefer to hunt for bears during the spring because of the reported better tasting meant of bears harvested at this time.

After the salmon season is over, many residents prepare for a fall moose hunt. The season opens September 1 on the Malaspina Forelands north of Yakutat Bay, and mid October or the Yakutat Forelands. Most hunting takes place on the Yakutat Forelands. . . .

A variety of waterfowl are available on the wetlands near Yakutat during the fall as birds migrate from northern Alaska, south along the Northern Gulf of Alaska Coast to wintering areas. The waterfowl that are commonly taken by local residents at this time include Canada geese, white-fronted geese, a variety of ducks (mallard, pintail, green-winged teal, scaup, golden eye). Occasionally, sand hill cranes are killed.

In the island area near Yakutat, marine resources continue to be available and are harvested when needed. During fall and winter, king and tanner crab are targeted by commercial fishers and are shared and distributed within the community. Clams and cockles begin to fatten and become more desirable as winter approaches. Seals are hunted in the island area, as needed. Seals are said to float after shooting more frequently when hunted in the fall and winter months than at other times of the year.

Steelheads return to upland river systems where many of them remain during the winter months. They are harvested primarily on the Situk River. During fall, firewood collecting becomes a priority as the air temperature begins to drop. Households that heated with wood during 1984 (50 percent of the surveyed households) on the average reported using 10.5 cords of wood during 1984.

Winter (November-January)

During late fall and winter months, the trapping of furbearers begins along rivers and, in recent years, along Forest Highway 10. Most of the recent trapping effort has been directed toward mink, marten and land otter. Occasionally, wolf, wolverine, beaver, and fox are also taken. As mentioned previously, the percentage of households participating in trapping has declined in the past 20 years due to many factors including declining fur values. Certain seafoods are abundant during the winter months and are shared and distributed throughout the community, harvested with commercial gear or noncommercial gear. Sea scallops are harvested primarily by a couple of commercial fishers, but are enjoyed throughout the community through sharing, trading, or purchasing. Shrimp are harvested with commercial and non-commercial pots and are abundant during the winter months. King and Tanner crab, as well as the intertidal species previously mentioned, are available, as needed, throughout the winter from the island's "ice box." During winter, residents have more time to participate in employment, providing cash for household items and fishing and hunting equipment that may need replacement. Residents also find time to become more involved in community affairs and other activities that the busy summer may have precluded.

Use of Resources

In addition to understanding patterns of harvesting fish and wildlife by Yakutat residents, it is also important to understand how the resource is used after being harvested. Many additional households benefit from one household's harvest because of the extensive sharing of resources that takes place in Yakutat. . . .

Resources that were harvested by Yakutat households were used (consumed) within the harvesting households, as well as shared with other households. Households that received were given these resources by harvesting households or other households that may also have received a resource from an active harvesting household. In other words, households that ultimately used or consumed a resource either obtained the product by harvesting it themselves, or received it from households that harvested or were given the fish or wildlife. . . .

Certain individual resources were harvested by a small percent of the community and consumed or used by a major portion of the community. Scallops and shrimp were harvested by less than 20 percent of the households, but we used by over 75 percent of the households. Dungeness crab was harvested by 40 percent of Yakutat households, but used by 98 percent. . . .

Moose were successfully harvested by 22 percent of Yakutat households, and all 22 percent shared their harvest with other households. Sixty-two percent of the surveyed households reported receiving moose. As is the case with many of the widely distributed resources, even the successful harvesters of a particular resource reported receiving the same resource from another household. Sometimes, particular parts of an animal, such as seal liver, were highly desired by a household. Some households would share portions of their harvest with another active harvesting household knowing those particular parts of the animal were highly desired by their neighbor.

The resource categories most frequently given to others were shellfish, other fish, salmon and berries. These were also the most frequently harvested resource categories and included those resources that were in abundance and which many households were able to harvest. A surplus of the resource, however, was not necessary before a household would share a harvest. Some households reported harvesting resources that were mostly given to others who were thought to need the item more than the harvester. This was certainly the situation with seal hunting. Many of the younger residents who hunted seals would first make certain the community's elders had sufficient quantities of seal products before keeping any for themselves. Elders would often return the gift at a later day in a processed or preserved form, or with resources that they were able to harvest themselves such as berries.

Resources most frequently consumed or used by a household reflect the combination of harvesting, giving, and receiving. Shellfish were used by 100 percent of the sampled households because of the extensive harvesting and sharing that occurred with these resources. Fifty percent or more of the households used seven of the eight resource categories. The eighth category marine plants, was used by 44 percent of Yakutat's households.