Seasonal Round of Subsistence Activities

Minto residents harvest a variety of fish, game, and plant resources throughout the year. . . . Harvest is influenced by the seasonal availability of resources, species abundance, regulations imposed by the Alaska Boards of Fisheries and Game, wage employment opportunities, and personal circumstances. The annual round of activities indicates Minto people harvest several species of salmon (chinook or king, summer chum or "dog," fall chum or "silver, " and coho or "chinook"); several freshwater non-salmonid fish species (whitefish, burbot or "lush" or "lingcod," northern pike, blackfish, sheefish, longnose sucker); large game (moose, black and brown bear); small game (hare, porcupine, ptarmigan, grouse, muskrat); waterfowl; berries (blueberries, lowbush and high-bush cranberries); wild edible plants (rhubarb); and wood. All of these resources can be harvested within Minto flats.

In examining the seasonal round of subsistence activities by species and month . . . it is clear that the types of activities fluctuated from month to month. From May through October, most harvest activities involved fishing and processing nearly all fish species available in Minto Flats and the Tanana River. These activities were augmented by spring muskrat and waterfowl hunting, bear hunting, fall moose hunting, grouse and hare hunting/snaring, and summer berry picking. These are the six busiest months of the year in terms of subsistence harvest activities; yet, it is the same time when seasonal wage employment is available, if at all.

Beginning in May, families and individuals occupy seasonal or temporary "spring camps" where they harvest muskrat, waterfowl, whitefish and pike, primarily. Some men periodically check black bear dens at this time and take bear when encountered. By mid June, people are making arrangements for salmon fishing on the lower Tolovana and Tanana Rivers. These activities require the harvest of wood for smoking fish, and for construction and repair of fishwheels and structures related to fish processing, such as drying racks, smokehouses, caches, and dwellings. Nets are set near the village for harvesting other freshwater species-pike, whitefish, sucker, burbot, and sheefish. By late July and during August, berry picking is incorporated into the weekly harvest activities. While the salmon fishing activities of summer (July and August) are relatively localized and based from fish camps or the village, gathering berries involves travel between fishing activities to other areas in the flats.

In late August and early September, hunters focus on waterfowl hunting, making day trips or trips of a few days away from the village or fish camp to hunt ducks. By mid September, during moose hunting season, families focus all their attention on the moose hunt. Fish camps are temporarily abandoned, and moose hunting becomes the sole subsistence activity. After the season, some families and individuals continue salmon fishing on the Tanana River and others set up fall camp in the eastern Minto Flats for whitefish fishing. Small game hunting and snaring for grouse and hare including "rabbit" drives, take place generally in late September and October. As rivers and lakes freeze over in late October, fishing becomes restricted to northern pike by "jigging" using hooks and lines. Firewood is collected, and trappers prepare for the winter trapping season. In winter, resource harvesting activities are limited by availability of species, fish and game regulations, severe low temperatures, and weather. As early spring emerges in March and April, activities shift to muskrat trapping and hunting and waterfowl hunting. . . .

SALMON FISHING

The salmon fisheries of the middle Tanana River have played a variable role in the subsistence and market economy of the Minto Flats area throughout the 20th century. Subsistence salmon harvest has been ever present; but, its importance to the subsistence economy has fluctuated with changes in the natural environment locally (weather, water level, shifting river courses) variations in the strength of the annual run of the different salmon species, alterations in local cash (non-subsistence) economic conditions (such as opportunities for obtaining cash or credit) changes in settlement (shifting village locations) social and cultural circumstances (composition of work groups and sociocultural characteristics) and non-locally imposed circumstances (fishing regulations). The way salmon fishing is conducted in any one season or period of time by the community of Minto and individual Minto households will be seen, then to depend upon a variety of factors and circumstances. Minto residents harvest four salmon species. . . .

Processing and Use

Salmon processing takes place both in the fish camp and in the village. Most salmon that are dried are processed in camp, although some families have drying and smoking facilities in the village in addition to their facilities at camp. For these people, salmon are sometimes dried and partially smoked at camp with the smoking process completed at facilities in the village. For others, some salmon species are processed in the village and others processed at the camp.. In 1984, at least three households processed king and summer chum salmon in the village, but processed fall chum and coho at fish camps on the Tanana River. Similarly, many fishing households dry most of their salmon, but freeze some in freezers located in the village. The latest running salmon in the Tanana caught in late fall are cut and "freeze-dried" out of doors when they are cut and hung in subfreezing temperatures. Sometimes, they are simply stacked and frozen out of doors and transported to the village after freeze up. Fish processed by either of these methods is used as food for dogs.

Salmon are cut, dried, and smoked and require about a week to process, provided conditions are optimum. Generally, salmon are hung two to three days to dry, depending upon temperatures and humidity. Continued rain will virtually destroy the catch that has been cut and hung to dry. . . . People will avoid fishing when rainy conditions prevail since rain promotes spoilage.

In 1983, all salmon for human consumption were cut into halves or filleted, scored, and hung to dry. . . . No brine was used in the process. King salmon were cut in the same fashion and were not cut into "strips" produced by making longitudinal cuts in the fillets, a common processing method in other villages. In fact, salmon fishing households that reported having strips had purchased them from individuals in other communities-Nenana, Fairbanks, and Stevens Village.

Salmon are smoked by burning dry "cottonwood" (Populas balsamifera) sometimes mixed with some green cottonwood. They are also dried and used for dog food. The heads of other salmon, as well as the guts, tails, and fins are cooked as dog food along with rice and commercially dried dog foods like "Purina."

Drying salmon is the primary method of processing salmon for human consumption, as well as for dogs. Households that harvest a few king salmon (less than 10) tend to freeze these for later use. A few households freeze some even when nearly all of the remainder of the catch are dried. Rarely, are summer chum and fall chum and coho frozen.

The greater part of the king salmon and summer and fall chum dried for human consumption were used for ceremonial occasions during the study year. Based on responses to questions about use of salmon, households that harvested and processed more than 10 king salmon used either all or a major portion of their harvest in this manner. Several households responded that their entire store of dried salmon (eating quality) was used for a memorial or funeral potlatch of an immediate family member (wife, son, daughter). Other households "donated" portions of their dried salmon to these same potlatches in other villages where an individual had a deceased relative. This is a customary practice, but varies from year to year depending upon whether there are funeral and memorial potlatches.

Dried salmon is often served by households that customarily "make tea," that is, serve tea following Sunday church services. Dried salmon accompanies other foods served at community events associated with other religious events such as Christmas and Easter, and non-religious gatherings such as New Year's, spring carnival, and birthday celebrations.

In addition to the ceremonial sharing of dried salmon, both in religious and non-religious contexts, dried salmon is consumed at home with immediate family members including those who do not reside in the same house, but who commonly eat meals at home, such as one's parents or children. Dried salmon, similarly, are given to immediate family members such as a daughter, brother, sister, or parent. Finally, dried salmon commonly are given to elders. Salmon dried for human consumption is rarely sold in Minto; however, it is occasionally purchased from individuals outside the community. Sometimes, it is traded for gasoline needed during the fishing season.

Frozen salmon is used almost exclusively for eating on ceremonial occasions and holidays when it is shared with others. Freezing salmon to be used strictly for feeding household members is rare.

Fresh salmon is commonly given to elders and to other families that have not at the time been successful in harvesting salmon at the beginning of the season or salmon run. When catches are exceptional, or families have more than they will be able to process, fresh salmon is given away to others. This is especially true when exceptionally large and unexpected runs occur, such as the 1983 summer run of chum salmon. Fishwheel boxes were filled to capacity in comparatively short periods of time.

Salmon cut and dried for use as dog food constitutes a major portion of the summer and fall chum and coho harvests. Generally, these salmon are used within the household or immediate family for feeding dogs. In years when an unusually large run results in greater than average catch, surplus dried salmon may be sold. As noted earlier, baled dried salmon for dog food was sold or traded for items throughout much of this century into the 1960s. Specifically, it was sold or traded for items (such as gasoline) at the native store in Old Minto and to three stores in Nenana. One fisherman reported that "even one year it was legal to trade dried salmon for gas" but no further details were given.

Dried salmon is occasionally purchased by Minto residents from people in other villages. Purchased salmon includes both salted king salmon strips, as well as some dried summer and fall chum. In 1983, four households reported purchasing some dried salmon. Only one of these did not fish in 1983. Dried salmon was purchased from individuals in Fairbanks, Nenana, Ruby, and Stevens Village. . . .

MOOSE HUNTING

Moose hunting in Minto Flats had been an integral part of the seasonal round throughout the twentieth century. Up until the late 1930s, both moose and caribou game species were hunted by Minto residents. The population of moose in Minto Flats has fluctuated during this time; yet, scientific data have been collected only during the past seven years, and these data show continuing change. . . .

DISTRIBUTION AND USE

It is customary for successful hunters to share moose meat with all hunting groups ("boats") camped at the camp site where the successful hunter and his party are based. Furthermore, hunting parties, as noted above, group together to watch for, track, pursue, and coax a moose toward the main hunter. Thus, the meat of the moose which has been shot is shared with other individuals who contributed to the successful harvest. Moose meat is also shared with any nearby hunting parties who may not have been directly involved in the hunt customary with a belief that the act of sharing will contribute to the hunter's future success in hunting moose.

Moose meat is often redistributed late to other households and individuals, particularly to elder members o the community and also during ceremonial occasions, both religious and non-religious . The brisket, head, ribs, and backbone (referred together as "potlatch meat") and stomach (tripe) generally are reserved for use during these occasions when the entire community comes together. Marrow and fat obtained from leg bones are used in preparing foods for religious ceremonies such as funeral and memorial potlatches. Fat which is obtained from leg bones are used in preparing foods for religious ceremonies such as funeral and memorial potlatches. Fat which is used in making various types of "Indian ice cream" is prepared by pounding and rendering. The hooves are boiled to loosen the toe bones which are then removed and eaten. The hoof proper is sometimes used in manufacturing handicrafts. Inner organs such as liver, heart, and kidney, are consumed also; however, the liver, kidney and stomach of bull moose in rut are considered inedible. Intestines are sometimes cut and cleaned and added to soup. They were used also in the process of tanning moose hides. Rarely today, parts of the lungs are boiled and eaten, or roasted in a campfire and the inner part eaten. Usually, the lungs are used for dog food.

WATERFOWL HUNTING

Today, as in the past, the Minto Flats region is considered to be one of the most important areas for waterfowl and migratory birds in interior Alaska. The Minto Lakes area, in particular, in the eastern portion of the flats, is one of the largest marsh areas in the interior where large numbers of waterfowl breed annually. It is equally important for molting waterfowl and migratory birds which feed there as they pass through the area in late summer and fall (Hooper 1952). . . .

USE

Minto residents process and use waterfowl in a variety of ways. They are eaten fresh, but are also frozen and occasionally dried for later use. Almost all households that harvested waterfowl ate some fresh, and most (85 percent) stored some for future use by freezing them. Ducks and geese are frozen unplucked and whole. Many ducks and geese which are taken when moose hunting and muskrat hunting are plucked at camping sites and eaten during those expeditions both by boiling and roasting them over an open campfire. After being plucked (except for the head and wings) the birds are singed over the campfire making the resultant soup or roast "tastier" by slightly charring the skin. In the past, the unplucked skin and feathers of the mallard were used in making hats for small children. Some ducks are plucked and then hung to dry for several days before being stored for later use. They are soaked in water before being cooked. It is not uncommon in the spring for the community to have a community-wide picnic which features duck soup which has been cooked in large quantities over open fires in the village. Similarly, duck soup often is served to residents and guests during the course of funeral and memorial potlatch ceremonies. It is noteworthy that 46 percent (17 of 37 households) that harvested waterfowl reported giving away most of their harvest for potlatches. Most (73 percent) hunting households gave ducks and/or geese either to other households or for potlatches.

BEAR HUNTING

Two bear species occur in and around Minto Flats, black bear (sresr; Ursus americanus) and brown bear (tsonee; Ursus arctos). Black bear are encountered more often and are hunted. Brown bear are seen on rare occasions in the flats, and people avoid taking them unless they pose a threat. Minto hunters often mention "cinnamon bear" (sresrtseek) which some consider a result of a cross between a black bear and a brown bear. These bears are taken since they inhabit the same areas and dens as black bear. Other than moose, black bear is the only other large game species harvested by Minto people (caribou were harvested pre-1940). . . .

USE

Despite the use of modern technology in hunting bear, the use of bear has remained much the same. As with most large game, the bear which has been killed is butchered by first cutting the animal skin lengthwise from the lower abdomen to the neck so the hide and fat can be separated from the remainder of the carcass. After skinning and gutting, the arms and legs are severed from the rest of the body. Each limb is cut into three pieces along the joint, each of which goes to an individual or household. The ribs, backbone, and brisket are saved for use at a potlatch. The heart, tongue and kidneys are cleaned, then cut into small pieces and boiled or roasted and eaten shortly after the kill. The skull is discarded, although in the past, elders roasted the skull over an open campfire. The remainder of the bear meat is frozen or dried if it is to be used later. The liver is not used. Bear meat is cooked either by roasting or boiling with other ingredients to make a soup. The fat removed from the hide is favored as a cooking oil, but is also used with wild berries and whitefish to make an "Indian ice cream" dish. Bear meat should only be eaten by men and older women. Women of child-bearing age should not go near bear dens or even be present when bears are killed or skinned.

In the past, the brains from bears were used in tanning moose hides. The brain was put in a bag with warm water and left until it soured, at which time it turned a creamy yellowish green color. The hide was placed in the mixture and left until the hide absorbed it and the remaining water was clear. The hide was then ready for tanning.

Historically, bear hides were placed on the floor of canoes by men to kneel and sit on. They were also used in the home as rugs to set upon the floor. The fur was used in making clothing such as mittens. Bear teeth were used as sharpeners such as knives and arrows. The claws were used in making necklaces, bracelets, and charms. It was reported also that bear hide was used for medicinal purposes as a cure for tuberculosis. The hide was burned; then it was boiled; the resulting broth was then to be drunk by the patient. Currently, the use of bear is limited to being a source of food and fat. Of the 15 bear harvested during the study year, at least six (40 percent) were donated for use at a potlatch, and at least six others were shared with people in other households, particularly parents. While this initial distribution may reach relatively few households, bear meat is frequently redistributed to older people. . . .

SMALL GAME HUNTING

Several small game species occur in the region used by the Minto people during the year. These include grouse, ptarmigan, hare ("rabbit"), and porcupine. Each of these plays a role in the subsistence activities of community residents. . . .

DISTRIBUTION AND USE

Most grouse and ptarmigan are eaten fresh shortly after harvest, although some are frozen for use at a later time. Over one-third (36 percent) of those who hunted grouse gave some to close relatives (generally parents) or to elders in the community. Two hunters also contributed grouse for use at a potlatch. Nearly the same percentage (35 percent) of men who snare hare gave some to close relatives (again, parents or siblings) or elders and one contributed some for use at a potlatch.

After cleaning, grouse and hare are boiled with purchased foods such as rice or macaroni to make a soup or are roasted, particularly in a campfire when in the field, such as on hunting trips or when operating a trap line. . . .