RESOURCE SHARING AND RECEIVING

... The most commonly received resources were moose (79.6 percent of households), Caribou (64.8 percent), harbor seal and smelt (51.9 percent each), beaver, Dolly Varden and lake trout (50 percent each), whitefish and roe-on-kelp (48.1 percent each), and black fish and butter clams (46.3 percent each). The list includes species in which individual animals provide a large amount of meat or oil, such as moose, caribou, and seal. In these cases, it is fairly easy to distribute shares of such a large catch. One respondent also told the researchers that sharing moose was a conscious method of guarding against over harvesting by ensuring each family had at least some moose. Freshwater fish caught in large numbers were also frequently shared as were resources which could not be obtained close to the village, such as roe-on-kelp and clams. In those cases, a smaller number of individuals made the journey to secure those resources and upon their return, widely shared them with families who had remained behind.

Another common pattern of resource sharing occurred through feasts, which were given to recognize birthdays and weddings. It was not uncommon for the host to invite and serve a meal to everyone in the village. Religious gatherings demonstrated a similar pattern. Relatives and friends from other villages visited Manokotak to participate in church songfests. During the several day duration of the event, the hosts were expected to house and feed visitors, with frequent feasting between church services. The hospitality was reciprocated when the event was held in a different village. At these times, wild foods were preferred and served in large quantities. Special hunting or fishing trips might be undertaken in preparation for the event. Another form of sharing in the village was simply inviting people over to share a meal. One respondent reported that he especially tried to share preferred foods, which were not harvested in large quantities in this manner, such as geese, by inviting others over "for a taste."

To collect information on patterns of exchange with other communities, respondents were asked to identify with which communities they had exchanged 17 specific resources. These questions elicited conservative estimates of the frequency of food exchanges between communities, because families typically do not keep track of all the foods that come into and leave a household during the course of the year. Nevertheless, they are useful for depicting overall trends in the types of food given and their destinations... The destinations of resources most frequently sent out from Manokotak were named as Anchorage and Dillingham... In all likelihood, these were gifts to kin who had moved to an urban or regional center and were unable to secure their "Native foods' in those locations. The next most frequent destinations were the communities of Twin Hills, Togiak, and Aleknagik. These are all within the region, and are the villages in closest proximity to Manokotak, where Manokotak residents are known to have strong kinship ties. Similar to Manokotak, all are predominantly Yup'ik Eskimo communities where the Moravian church plays a significant role. Research in other rural Alaskan communities (Morris 1986) also identified cultural and religious ties as important factors in distribution and exchange patterns. These four villages often host each other for Moravian events. Other communities named particularly those in the Kuskokwim area included several where Manokotak residents were known to have relatives, although the relationship of the giver was not specified in the survey. The resources, which were sent out of Manokotak most frequently, were moose, salmon, beaver, berries, smelt, caribou, and freshwater fish. When analyzing the communities, which sent resources to Manokotak...,Togiak stands out as the single largest contributor. In fact, food was reported received more often from Togiak than all other locations combined. Twin Hills, a much smaller community located only a few miles from Togiak, was named as the second most frequent sender. The resources which were sent most often included seal oil and meat, walrus, smelt, freshwater fish, and roe-on-kelp. Togiak and Twin Hills' location on the resource-rich Togiak Bay put them in a good position for hunting marine species...

Moose is the most important big game resource for Manokotak residents. Concern over state land disposals in their traditional moose hunting territory was, in fact, one impetus for this study. In the fall, most moose hunting takes place by skiff, particularly along the Igushik River and Amanka and Ualik lakes. In the winter season hunting is usually by snowmachine, with the greatest effort concentrated around the Weary River drainage. These areas are included in Game Management Unit 17C... In Game Management Unit 17, moose populations were relatively scarce during the 1970s. This was attested to by long-term local residents and by ADF&G staff observations. A severe winter in 1974-75, along with a reportedly high rate of moose predation, depressed those populations still further. However, moose populations are now generally increasing in Game Management Unit 17B and 17C, although populations in 17A remain severely depressed (Townsend 1987a: 68). During 1983, the Division of Game, (ADF&G), conducted a winter moose census in portions of Game Management Unit 17C. The results indicated approximately 1,212 moose with an overall low to moderate density of about .7 moose per square mile (ADF&G Habitat Guide 1985a: 135).

... From 1961 to 1985, the bag limit of one bull has not changed at all during that period but the time allowed for harvesting the limit has been shortened. Until 1975, moose hunting was allowed for approximately four continuous harvest ticket at an ADF&G office. In all seasons, only bulls could be taken, and each hunter was limited to a season limit of one bull.

As a rule, moose hunting parties from Manokotak were composed of male relatives or friends. Women sometimes accompanied the men in the fall on trips to Amanka or Ualik lakes when moose hunting, berry picking, and harvesting spawned-out salmon were combined. In the fall, many of the men from the village were on the river at the same time, hunting in the same general vicinity and might join efforts. In that case, all hunters in the area shared their catch in the field. The researchers were told that on one occasion, a moose was divided in the field between 23 men. It was stressed that the moose was shared with everyone, no matter how large a number of people, "It's not his moose just because he shot it." Men also hunted in smaller parties of two or three. In either case, the moose was shared in the field and again at home. It is considered the role of a woman, usually a wife or mother, to butcher and distribute the meat once it is brought into the house. Although this custom is generally followed in Manokotak today, some men did help with the butchering, particularly in households where women held jobs outside the home. The meat was most commonly preserved by freezing although some is also dried. Nearly all parts of the animal were used, including the organs (the liver and stomach eaten raw shortly after the harvest), the hooks, and even the nose.

Almost all of the households reported using moose; it was tied with beaver as the third most widely used resource of all, with only red salmon and berries reportedly used more widely. Two thirds of the households (66.7 percent) attempted to harvest moose and exactly one third of all households (or one half of those who tried) were successful. In total, 20 moose were reportedly taken by the sample in 1985 and the mean harvest per household was 200 pounds; only red salmon made up a larger portion of the average household harvest. As reported above, moose was widely shared and was received by more households (79.6 percent) than any other single resource.

During the study year, caribou was another important big game resource, used by 88.9 percent of the sample and harvested by 31.5 percent. Manokotak residents hunted caribou in portions of Game Management Unit 9 and 17, where two major caribou herds, the Mulchatna and Northern Peninsula, reside. The Mulchatna herd roams the area generally west of the Alaska Range and north of Iliamna Lake, as far north as the Taylor Mountains and the Stony River (ADF&G 1985a: 117) in of Game Management Units 9A, 9B, 16, 17, and 19. The size of the Mulchatna herd has fluctuated in the past, and historical data on the herd are limited. In the mid-1960s the herd was estimated at 3,000 to 5,000 animals (ADF&G 1985a: 118-119). Census information for 1985 indicated a herd size of 42,900 animals. Since 1981, population growth of this herd has been exceptionally rapid, estimated at 20 percent per year (Townsend 1987b:3-4). Manokotak hunters take animals from this herd in Game Management Units 17C, 17B, and 9B.

The northern Alaska Peninsula herd ranges from the Naknek River south to Port Moller and numbered 15,274 animals in 1986 (Townsend 1987b: 6). There has been a relatively steady growth in this herd since the 1930s, although the most recent census data indicate that the sleeping mats. Although meat from black bear was eaten, brown bear meat was not generally thought fit for human consumption since one informant reported that the bears were coming closer to the village in recent years and feeding on garbage. Bear meat was usually fed to dogs.

To hunt bear, a hunting license was required and for brown bear a $25 bear tag was required as well. There was no closed season on black bears in Game Management Unit 17 and the limit was three per year. Brown bears could be hunted in G14Us 17A and 17C, from Sept. 20 - Oct. 20 and May 10 - 25. Under 1985/86 subsistence-hunting regulations, one bear could be taken each year. However, bear hunters; bear parts, and bears taken from April 10-May 9 could not be transported within or out of the area by aircraft. At least one hunter was concerned that brown bear attracted to summer and fall fish camps posed a safety threat to residents and suggested that more Manokotak hunters would hunt brown bear if the spring season began earlier when it was still possible to hunt by snow machine.

The two important small game species used by Manokotak residents for food and other products were porcupine and hares. Both were usually harvested incidentally during other subsistence activities. There were no closed seasons or bag 'limits on either animal. Porcupines were harvested throughout the year, but were particularly favored in the early winter. Slow moving animals, they were easily clubbed or shot with .22 caliber rifles. Quills were often used in jewelry, especially earring and necklaces, which were sold in the local co-op or in Dillingham businesses. Thirty-four households harvested 136 porcupines in 1985.

Snowshoe or Arctic hare were harvested from November to April with snares or .22s. The hare population is cyclic, so harvests have varied greatly in size from year to year. Twenty households took 177 hares in 1985. Both porcupine and hares were usually stewed, but hares were also salted. Hare fur was used for skin-sewing such items as parkas, hats, and mukluks.

A variety of furbearers are present in the Bristol Bay area. Beavers are common throughout the region. The beaver population in of Game Management Unit 14U 17 has increased steadily in the 1970s and 1980s, reversing an earlier decline that was attributed to over harvesting (ADFG 1985a:90). Other common furbearers include land otter, mink, short tailed and least weasel, and red fox. Wolverine, lynx, and marten are widespread but less common. A few packs of wolves roam throughout the region (Peters et al. 1984:20). Muskrats and arctic ground squirrels, locally called "parky squirrels," also inhabit the area.

... Seasons were timed to coincide with pelt primeness. Although no systematic data were collected on means of harvest (i.e. hunting and trapping) during the survey, it is likely that the vast majority of the furbearers taken by the sample were trapped since bullet holes decrease the value of the fur.

Trapping was an important activity for many households in Manokotak, and relied upon as a significant supplemental winter income for some. Seventy-eight percent of the households trapped at least one species during the study year. Nine species were harvested in total: beaver, mink, land otter, fox, muskrat, lynx, wolf, wolverine, and arctic ground squirrel. The most common method of transportation was by snowmachine but all terrain vehicles were also used during periods of poor snow cover.

Most furs were sold during the annual Beaver Round Up in Dillingham in early March to local or Seattle buyers. Very few furs were sold through the mail or at auctions. Some households kept some furs to make clothing or craft items. Squirrels were not sold commercially but used to make parkas, which were valued as gifts or sold for an average cost of over $1,000. Manokotak has a number of excellent skin-sewers. Other items made included beaver hats, mukluks, slippers, and mittens. Generally, women tan fox, squirrel, and rabbit skins themselves but it is becoming more common to send beaver skins to professionals for tanning.

During 1985, successful trappers harvested 425 beavers, 53 mink, 75 land otters, 117 foxes, 54 muskrats, 2 lynx, 1 wolf, 2 wolverines, and 225 ground squirrels. All species were harvested for their fur but beavers, land otters, muskrats, and squirrels were also used for food. Respondents reported that of all animals harvested, the following numbers were used for food: 409 beavers, 11 land otters, 38 muskrats, and 147 squirrels. The number of land otters used for food represents a minimum estimate since the question was not asked systematically. Beaver meat was especially important since it was used by 94.4 percent of the sample.

Alaska Natives living on the coast of the North Pacific and Arctic Oceans were permitted to harvest marine mammals for food or handicrafts. No permits were required for subsistence hunting and no quotas have been imposed on species hunted by Manokotak residents.

During the study year, marine mammals were an important resource to Manokotak residents. By weight, they made up 8.5 percent of the community's subsistence harvest .... Marine mammals were hunted most intensively in the spring and the fall. In the spring marine mammal hunting was in conjunction with commercial and subsistence herring activities in Kulukak Bay. Some men also camped at Igushik specifically to hunt seals and waterfowl in the spring. In addition to spring and fall, belukhas were sometimes hunted during the summer during a lull in commercial fishing activity. Most commonly younger men hunted belukhas although one particular highly skilled elder often accompanied them.

The most commonly used marine mammal was harbor seal. It was used by 72.2 percent of the sample and harvested by 20 households, with a take of 42 harbor seals in 1985. In addition, two ringed and one unidentified seal were harvested. Seal meat and oil were widely shared. While 38.9 percent of the sample harvested seals, nearly twice as many households reported using them (75.9 percent). Seal hunting took place most commonly in the spring in conjunction with duck hunting and herring fishing in Kulukak Bay. They were shot from skiffs in open water with .22 caliber rifles and were occasionally salvaged from fishing nets. All parts of the seal (except the entrails) were used including meat, blubber, and skin. The meat was eaten fresh or dried. Seal oil was the most important local condiment for boiled and dried fish or meat and was rendered by placing a jar filled with strips of blubber in a cool, dark place. Seal blubber was also eaten. In addition, the skin was used for producing waterproof garments and craft items. Increasingly, women are sending the skins out to be professionally tanned.

Another important marine mammal was belukha. By weight, belukha contributed 4.5 percent of the community's subsistence harvest in 1985. Fifty percent of the sample reported using belukha and 12 households harvested a total of 7 animals. Belukhas were shot with high-powered rifles, then retrieved with a harpoon and dragged or allowed to drift to the beach. Usually, the hunters butchered a sufficient quantity of the animal to meet their household's needs, and perhaps to share with a few close relatives or elders. Then, an announcement was made over the CB or VHF radio that anyone who wanted belukha meat could take what they needed. Within two or three days, the whale was completely distributed. All parts of the belukha were eaten, except for the entrails. The meat was eaten fresh, salted, or frozen for later use. The skin was cut up in chunks, placed in buckets, and allowed to ferment in a dark cool place for approximately one week. Oil rendered from the blubber was used like seal oil. The flippers were fermented, salted, eaten raw, or frozen for later use.

Sea lions were also hunted in Kulukak Bay during the herring season. Fifteen sea lions were taken by 11 households in 1985. Thirty-five percent of the households reported using sea lion. When the sea lions were young and tender, all parts (except the entrails) were used, including the meat and the skin; the meat from older sea lions was considered tough. In all cases, the flippers were considered a special delicacy.