ANNUAL CYCLE

The seasonal cycle of resource activities for Arctic Village from 1970 through 1982 is summarized bolow. . . . It should be emphasized . . . that only the major activities are included in this summary, and that other activities such as hauling water or gathering firewood, may require considerable amounts of time over the entire year. Furthermore, considerable variation can occur within the framework of this generalized cycle of activities for any given year.

Spring. Because of its location in the Brooks Range, Arctic Village experiences breakup and the arrival of migratory waterfowl--traditional indicators that spring has arrived--later than Yukon Flats communities. Breakup on the Chandalar River usually occurs in late May or early June. Waterfowl hunting begins on lakes and along the Chandalar River as the ice begins to melt. Muskrats are also hunted at this time, and gill nets are placed in rivers and lakes to obtain whitefish, pike, grayling, and suckers. Grayling are often caught in large numbers through the ice using hook and line.

As warmer weather becomes more prevalent, residents begin construction projects, clean up their community, and begin seasonal wage jobs when available.

Summer. Fishing for whitefish, pike, grayling, suckers, and lake trout are primary summer activities. Both nets and hook and lines are used to harvest fish in the Chandalar River and on adjacent creeks and lakes. Old John Lake is an especially important lake for harvesting fish.

Caribou usually are available to Arctic Village residents by the middle of August north and east of the community on treeless ridges and near Old John Lake. Older men scan the countryside with binoculars for the first sign of caribou. Boat travelers on the Chandalar River stop at several wooden towers constructed along the banks to look for the migrating animals. At this time of year, boats are used to hunt caribou along rivers, while hunters on land travel by foot or use all-terrain vehicles.

Gathering of firewood continues throughout the summer for Arctic Village residents. Blueberries, lowbush cranberries, and nagoonberries are also collected. Summer employment on construction projects or fire fighting provides cash income for some households.

Fall. Hunting caribou, moose, ground squirrels, sheep, and waterfowl are primary fall activities. Bull caribou are harvested until freeze-up restricts travel usually in late September. Moose are harvested using boats on the Chandalar and Junjik Rivers. Sheep are sometimes taken in recent years by traveling to hunting areas by means of chartered aircraft. Ground squirrels are hunted and trapped--often by women and elderly persons--on alpine ridges surrounding the community. Waterfowl are occasionally harvested before ice develops on lakes and streams. In addition, "rabbit drives" are sometimes undertaken to flush out hares from willow bars along rivers were they can be harvested for human food. Firewood and berries are gathered.

By late September freeze-up usually has begun, and travel becomes restricted until solid ice and sufficient snow cover allow travel by snowmobile.

Winter. Once travel by snowmobiles becomes possible, usually by mid October, resource harvest activities expand once again. Caribou hunting resumes through the use of snowmobiles. Caribou hunting continues through the winter depending upon local need and availability. Generally, caribou are no longer available to Arctic Village residents after mid to late April.

Gillnets are placed under the ice on the Chandalar River, on Old John Lake and on other nearby lakes for grayling, pike, whitefish, burbot, and lake trout. Fishing under the ice usually continues until December, after which the ice becomes too thick for efficient harvesting. Fishing with a hook and line for grayling is pursued once again in late winter usually April and early May.

Sheep hunting takes place by snowmobile in early winter, especially near Ottertail Creek. Sheep meat is kept frozen or dried, and is usually saved for the elderly and for community potlatches.

In November, trappers begin to make sets for marten, fox, wolf, wolverine, and beaver. Some trappers travel long distances by snowmobile and occasionally by chartered airplane with their supplies and equipment to distant trapping areas. In recent years, trappers have run lines as far as Alexander's Village, Christian Village, and the Sheenjek River. Trappers continue checking their lines until about the end of March.

Trapping, snaring, or hunting small game and fowl such as hares, porcupine, and ptarmigan provides variety to the local diet throughout the winter. Firewood gathering and water hauling also require constant attention in winter.

Late winter activities include spring caribou and occasional moose hunting, muskrat, beaver, and ground squirrel trapping and ptarmigan hunting. House logs are often sledded to the community for use in summer construction projects. . . .

ANNUAL CYCLE

The seasonal cycle of annual resource harvest activities for Birch Creek from 1970 through 1982 is summarized below. . . . As noted above, only major activities are included, and considerable variation can occur from year to year.

Spring. The onset of snowmelt usually begins in about mid April in the vicinity of Birch Creek. While travel becomes more difficult after the winter's snow turns to slush, migratory waterfowl begin to arrive signaling the renewal of a new season. Ducks, geese, and cranes begin to arrive about mid April stopping to rest primarily on ice-free margins of rivers and lakes. Waterfowl hunting begins as soon as birds arrive. Hunters occasionally scatter mud on the surface of certain lakes to attract waterfowl. Waterfowl are usually eaten fresh, or are dried or frozen.

Muskrat hunting is a major spring activity on lakes near the community. Hunters know particularly good places to find abundant muskrat populations, and harvest the small furbearers using canvas-covered canoes and small-caliber rifles. Gillnets are set in Birch and adjacent creeks and sloughs to obtain whitefish, pike, and suckers. The fish are eaten fresh or are stored by drying. House logs are sometimes cut upriver from the community at this time of year and floated down to the village for later use. Black bear may also be shot near camps or the community.

Summer. By the middle of June, muskrat hunting subsides as the muskrat mating season progresses. Hunters at outlying muskrat camps return to Birch Creek. Certain waterfowl species--especially "black ducks" or scoters--continue to be harvested on larger lakes and near well-known canoe portages. Near the end of June, some household members usually travel by boat to fish camps near the confluence of the Yukon River and the lower mouth of Birch Creek. Upon arrival, residents repair camp and caches, build fishwheels and smokehouses, and prepare for the arrival of king salmon in early July. Whitefish and sheefish are also harvested in nets. Routine fish camp activities such as checking nets, processing fish, gathering firewood, and visiting friends and relatives continue through the chum salmon run which usually begins in late July. Summer activities also include wage employment in fire fighting or on construction projects when available.

Fall. By late August, supplies of chum salmon have usually been stockpiled for winter. Once an adequate fish harvest has been achieved, Birch Creek residents return to their community for hunting and to prepare for winter.

Moose and black bear hunting are the principal fall activities in Birch Creek and usually occur upriver from the community along Birch Creek as far as Preacher Creek, or on Beaver Creek. Waterfowl and small mammals continue to be harvested until early October. Often firewood is gathered and stockpiled upriver from the community and then rafted down for use during winter. Cranberries, blueberries, salmonberries, and rosehips are gathered for winter use. Nets are used in Birch Creek and nearby lakes to harvest whitefish, grayling, pike, and sheefish.

Winter. Freeze-up usually occurs in late October in Birch Creek vicinity. Scoters are often hunted until that time. Fish traps were traditionally used just before freeze-up to catch whitefish, grayling, sheefish, and pike. Historically, grayling were also speared as they passed through weirs under the ice on Birch Creek. Today, residents place nets under the ice from October to December to catch whitefish, pike, and sheefish. Grayling are caught by "jigging" through holes in the ice.

By November, traps are set for marten, lynx, mink, fox, weasel, wolverine, otter, and (occasionally) wolf. Beaver snares are set both in early and late winter. Trapping for most species continues until February or early March. Moose may occasionally be harvested in conjunction with trapping activity usually in November and again in February or March. Gathering firewood, hauling water, community gathering, and visiting occupy considerable amounts of time in winter. Grouse, ptarmigan, and hares are harvested when available. . . .

ANNUAL CYCLE

The annual cycle of resource harvest activities for Chalkyitsik from 1970 to 1982 is summarized below. . . . Only major activities are included in the summary, however, and considerable yearly variation can occur.

Spring. Breakup of rivers in the area around Chalkyitsik usually occurs in mid to late April, similar to patterns elsewhere in Yukon Flats. Waterfowl and muskrat harvesting become a central focus for Chalkyitsik residents. Ohtig Lake and specific places near the village and along the Black River are known to be favorable areas for hunting ducks and geese. Muskrats are harvested on the multitude of lakes near the community through the use of small canvas-covered canoes and small-caliber rifles. Nets are placed in lakes and rivers after breakup to obtain both whitefish and pike. Black bears, which have recently emerged from hibernation, are sometimes shot near spring camps or in the vicinity of Chalkyitsik itself.

Summer. Harvest of waterfowl, especially white-winged scoters, occurs until about mid June. Fishing for whitefish and pike continues throughout the summer. In August gillnets and occasionally fishwheels are used to harvest chum salmon, as well as whitefish and pike from the Black River. Residents owning dog teams often fish for chum salmon on the Black River or travel to the Yukon River near Fort Yukon to obtain salmon.

Summer is also an important time for obtaining cash income from seasonal construction employment or fire fighting. Some Chalkyitsik residents spend considerable time tending gardens in the community, as well. Waterfowl, grouse, hares, or other small game may be harvested throughout the summer as an occasional supplement to local diets. Berries are often gathered near the village in late summer.

Fall. Hunting moose and black bear are a central focus of fall harvest activities in Chalkyitsik. Groups of several moose hunters usually travel by boat along the Black River and the Salmon Fork in search of moose. Black bears may be taken in conjunction with moose hunting. Caribou are occasionally taken in fall by Chalkyitsik hunters, usually along the Porcupine River or near the mountainous headwaters of the Black River.

Fishing for chum salmon, whitefish, and pike continue into the fall using nets in the Black River. In some years, large numbers of whitefish have been harvested in a small creek near Chalkyitsik. Grayling are sometimes caught using a hook and line often in conjunction with hunting activity.

Waterfowl hunting continues near Chalkyitsik until birds are no longer available. Berries and other vegetation are gathered and stored for winter use, and firewood is stockpiled for use during winter.

Winter. Freeze-up usually occurs during October restricting travel until sufficient ice forms on lakes and rivers. Once ice on the Black River and nearby lakes becomes thick enough, nets are set under the ice for whitefish and pike. In the fall of 1981, five gillnets had been placed under the ice on the Black River in front of Chalkyitsik. Residents "jigged" for grayling through holes in the ice near the mouths of small streams and also set out hooks to harvest burbot. Fishing through the ice usually continues until November or December depending largely upon weather conditions and harvest success.

Soon after snowfall occurs, Chalkyitsik residents set out snare lines for hares. Some residents also hunt "rabbits" along willow bars taking advantage of their still-mottled coloration. Bears are occasionally harvested in the dens in early winter, though the extent of this practice in recent years is not known.

During November, trapping begins for marten, mink, lynx, beaver, wolf, and fox. Commonly used traplines extend up the Black and Little Black Rivers, north to the Porcupine and Coleen Rivers, and west as far as the Sucker River. Trapping continues usually until about mid March, although beaver and muskrat trapping become most important during February and March.

Moose hunting sometimes occurs in conjunction with trapping, especially in November and during February and March. Caribou are occasionally harvested during spring and are valued as a source of variety in local diets.

Gather firewood and hauling water are continual requirements throughout winter. Small game and fowl including grouse and ptarmigan are occasionally harvested during winter months. In late winter, usually April, grayling are caught through the ice using hook and line. . . .

ANNUAL CYCLE

The annual cycle of resource harvest activities for Fort Yukon from 1970 to 1982 is summarized below. . . . The annual cycle summary includes only major harvest activities and may vary from year to year.

Spring. Breakup usually begins in mid April in the Yukon Flats area, and migratory waterfowl appear soon after that time. Ducks and geese are avidly sought by Fort Yukon residents because they offer the first fresh meat of spring. Residents living in spring tent camps harvest waterfowl on small lakes and streams. Others living in Fort Yukon at this time of year seek waterfowl along rivers and lakes close to the community.

Muskrat hunting is also an important spring activity. Some hunters establish muskrat camps on isolated lakes in late winter before breakup begins. They then "spring out" at these camps remaining there during breakup to trap, then hunt muskrat and waterfowl. Black bear are also occasionally taken near these camps, or after the rivers become free of ice, along the banks of watercourses.

Fishnets are placed in small creeks and sloughs near the Yukon and Porcupine Rivers to catch whitefish, suckers, and pike. By June, waterfowl and muskrat hunting decline, and the focus of activity centers around preparation for salmon fishing. Boats, outboard motors, and nets are pulled out of storage and repaired for use during the brief summer months. Some residents cut house logs along the Yukon and Porcupines Rivers upstream from Fort Yukon and raft them down to the community during high water for later use.

Summer. Many Fort Yukon residedents travel on the Yukon or Porcupine Rivers to establish fish camps before the arrival of king salmon around the first of July. Others remain in Fort Yukon, but make daily trips to check their nets. King salmon are caught using gillnets and occasionally fishwheels. Fishing families are busy checking nets and wheels, cutting and processing fish, making king salmon "strips," and tending smokehouses. Daily activities often include the repair of equipment such as outboard motors and fish nets,and gathering firewood for smokehouses and cooking fires. Small game or fowl are sometimes harvested if available, and considerable time is spent visiting friends and relatives in nearby camps.

These patterns of fishing activity continue after the first week of August when chum salmon usually arrive in the Fort Yukon area. Chum salmon are more commonly caught in fishwheels, and are split and dried on racks made of local materials. By late summer, blueberries, cranberries, rosehips, and other vegetation are harvested for use during the long winter months.

Seasonal wage employment in fire fighting or construction jobs is an important summer activity, as well. Usually, workers return to Fort Yukon, however, before the fall season of hunting begins. Some families in Fort Yukon also grow large gardens, which provide vegetables for use in the winter.

Fall. Moose hunting, and to a lesser extent, caribou hunting are the focus of harvest activities during late August and September. Fort Yukon hunters often travel by boat in search of moose in particularly good areas along the Yukon River downstream as far as White Eye or the lower mouth of Birch Creek, up Birch Creek, or up the Yukon toward Twenty-two Mile near Circle. Others travel up Porcupine River or its tributaries such as the lower portion of the Sheenjek, Coleen, or Black Rivers to harvest moose. Black bear may also be harvested in conjunction with moose hunting. Caribou hunting usually occurs in mid September near Canyon Village or Old Rampart as animals from the Porcupine Caribou herd cross the Porcupine River.

Fishing for chum and coho salmon continues until freeze-up in late fall, especially by those households having sled dogs. Whitefish and pike are also taken with nets, and grayling are caught using hook and line. Waterfowl are harvested as long as they are available, but not as intensively as in spring. Some Fort Yukon residents begin to gather firewood, berries, or other vegetation, or engage in hunting hares by means of "rabbit drives."

Winter. Freeze-up of small lakes and streams in the Fort Yukon area usually occurs in mid October. The Yukon and Porcupine Rivers, however, usually do not freeze until November or even December. After the ice thickens and sufficient snow exists for using snowmobiles, trappers set out their lines for marten, mink, beaver, lynx, wolf, fox and wolverine. In addition, trappers are engaged in the upkeep of trapline cabins, hauling supplies to camps, and preparing for market. Beaver snares are used principally in early and late winter. Other species are usually sought until mid March. Snare lines for hares are checked regularly both by trappers and by Fort Yukon residents. Grouse or ptarmigan are occasionally harvested when encountered.

Fishing under the ice for whitefish, pike, and suckers sometimes is undertaken just after freeze-up. Fish are kept frozen for both human and dog consumption. Firewood gathering and water hauling remain regular chores for most households throughout the winter.

Moose are sometimes harvested during winter, usually in November or again during February and March. Often, trappers in remote areas wait until early winter to harvest moose so that meat can be kept frozen. Spring moose are occasionally taken to provide meat for the summer months.

In late winter, trappers turn their attention to beaver snaring and trapping and then to muskrat trapping. Grayling are caught through holes in the ice using hook and line as late as early April. . . .

ANNUAL CYCLE

The annual cycle of resource harvest activities for Venetie from 1970 to 1982 is summarized below. . . .

Only major activities are included, however, and variation can occur in the annual cycle from year to year.

Spring. The hunting of waterfowl usually begins in early May as open water appears on streams and on the margins of lakes. Veneite residents in spring muskrat camps harvest both muskrat and waterfowl until early June. Waterfowl hunters remaining in Veneite use Venetie Lake and sites along the Chandalar River for harvest activities.

Once ice has left rivers and small streams, gill nets are placed in the water to harvest whitefish, pike, and suckers. Ground squirrels are trapped or hunted in upland areas near the community. Black bear are also taken occasionally when encountered along rivers or near the community. Some Venetie families prepare to make the journey down to the mouth of the Chandalar River by boat to fish camps along the Yukon River where salmon will be harvested.

Summer. Some Venetie families move to the Yukon River to fish for king and chum salmon by mid June. Before the arrival of king salmon in early July, fish camps occupants are busy preparing boats, outboard motors, nets, and camps for fishing. Those remaining in Venetie continue to fish for whitefish, pike grayling, suckers, and burbot in the Chandalar River and in adjacent lakes and creeks throughout summer. Fishing on the Yukon River for king salmon occurs mostly in July, and chum salmon harvests usually occur during August and early September. Chum salmon are also caught with nets on the Chandalar River near Venetie beginning in mid-August. Chums are split, dried, and used for dog food.

Other summer activities include growing gardens, gathering berries and rosehips, fishing for grayling, and hauling in logs for use in construction of new homes and community buildings. Seasonal wage employment in fire fighting, oil and gas exploration activities, or construction is also undertaken.

In late summer, usually August, caribou may be encountered along the Chandalar River's East Fork. Hunters occasionally harvest caribou along the river while traveling in boats.

Fall. Moose hunting and fishing for salmon and whitefish are major fall activities. Hunters often travel along the Chandalar River using riverboats in search of moose, camping at specific places known for concentrations of game. Moose meat is either eaten fresh or dried for frozen for use during winter. Caribou may occasionally be harvested in fall, as well.

Chum salmon fishing continues on the Chalandar River near Venetie until freeze-up in early October. Salmon are dried or frozen for use principally as dog food. Gill nets are also placed at the mouths of particular small streams to obtain whitefish in the fall.

Hunting near the community in fall often yields hares, ground squirrels, grouse, and black bears. Cranberries are gathered for use in winter, and fireweed is collected for home heating.

Winter. Trapping activities begin in earnest in November. Prior to that, trappers are busy preparing equipment and cabins for use during the winter season. The primary species sought by Venetie trappers are marten, mink, beaver, lynx, fox, wolf, and muskrat. Snare lines are also set around the outskirts of Venetie to obtain hares throughout the long winter. Grayling are caught through the ice using hook and line in early winter. Grayling are caught through the ice using hook and line in early winter.

In November and early December, moose may occasionally be harvested by hunters on snowmobiles. In some years, caribou are available to Venetie hunters north of the community near Gold Cap, Marten Hill, or along the Middle Fort of the Chandalar River near Ackerman Lake. Hunters on snowmobiles seek out these animals throughout the winter.

In February and March trapping and snaring activity turns more toward the harvest of beaver and muskrat. Moose or caribou may also be harvested on occasion during these months to be used later in the spring and summer. A few hunters may travel by mail plane to hunt caribou with their relatives near Arctic Village at this time, especially in years when caribou are not available near Venetie. . . .

SHARRING AND EXCHANGE OF RESOURCES

Sharing and exchange of locally derived resources has been documented at the community, regional and inter-regional levels since the first Euro-Americans explored the Upper Yukon-Porcupine region. In 1864, Archdeacon Robert McDonald noted that caribou obtained from the "Chandalar people" was the only resource available during a food shortage at Fort Yukon (McDonald n.d.:1 April 1864). He noted that Fort Yukon inhabitants obtained moose meat from outlying camps in the Yukon Flats and received fish from Birch Creek residents. McDonald also described trading journeys of Native residents beyond the region, to both the Arctic coast and down the Yukon River to its confluence with the Tanana River.

Sharing and exchange of locally derived products continues in the region today. Certain communities, especially Arctic Village and Fort Yukon, serve as regional providers of localized resources. When caribou are available near Arctic Village, meat is shared not only with relatives in Venetie where kinship ties appear especially strong, but also with all other communities in the region. Small amounts of caribou meat may also be sent to the elderly confined in the hospital in Fairbanks or to university students living away from home. Residents of other communities with relatives in Arctic Village occasionally travel to that community and hunt caribou when they are available. A resident of another community may pay for the gas, oil, and ammunition used by an Arctic Village relative to hunt caribou and then pay the costs of shipping the meat.

Fort Yukon residents commonly share salmon, particularly king salmon, with residents of Arctic Village, and to a lesser extent, of other communities. Fort Yukon's location on the Yukon River makes it relatively easy for residents to obtain enough salmon to share with relatives in other communities. Moose meat is also occasionally shared among relatives in each of the communities in the region, especially when local moose populations are in short supply. Lumber made from birch obtained near Venetie or Fort Yukon is sometimes shipped to Arctic Village residents for use in making dog sleds or toboggans. Garden produce for Fort Yukon and Venetie is also shared with Arctic Village residents who live in an area where growing gardens is difficult. Pelts from furbearers trapped in outlying areas are sometimes sold to residents of Fort Yukon or other communities for use in making clothing or handicrafts. In the past, some trappers from the region have sent wolverine pelts to stores in Barrow because of the demand there for wolverine parka ruffs.

While the total amount of particular products exchanged among communities may not be great, the economic, social, and cultural values of this sharing and exchange cannot be overlooked. These patterns reflect a continuation of practices which, for Native people, extend back to aboriginal times. In many cases, the only difference in the contemporary pattern may be the fact that shipment of products among communities is principally by aircraft; while in the past, products were transported by dog team or pack dogs.

Exchange and sharing among relatives and friends also occur within communities. In particular, residents of Arctic Village, Birch Creek, and Venetie report that locally harvested products are often widely shared. Moose harvested near those communities during the course of this study appeared to be distributed to most households. In Fort Yukon, sharing meat is reported to occur within closely related extended family units according to local informants. The distribution of a moose harvested by two Fort Yukon men in 1981 provides one example of this. Meat was primarily shared among the households of two brothers, who hunted together, and their elderly parents. However, secondary distribution extended to the hunter's in-laws, aunts, uncles, cousins, a nephew and "godparents." Some meat was also provided to unrelated friends.

In Fort Yukon, as in all of the study communities, potlatch gatherings are an occasion during which food is shared within the community. The meat of large, and small game, especially moose, caribou, fish, and wildfowl, figures prominently in most community potlatches. Soups made from moose or caribou heads are considered special delicacies, as are fatty portions of intestines and internal organs. Certain animals such as Dall sheep in Arctic Village, are usually eaten only by elders. The parts of other animals, such as the brisket, heart, kidneys, and ribs of moose, are usually reserved for older, especially if moose are in short supply. . . .