SUBSISTENCE SHEEP HUNTING AND USE

Historically, northwestern Alaska residents have used virtually all available animal resources at one time or another. The precise configuration of each year's seasonal round of hunting activities has shifted from year to year and decade to decade in response to changes in weather, ice and river conditions, migratory routes, species abundance, technology, economic opportunities, and other factors. Although Dall sheep were likely never a staple food in northwestern Alaska such as caribou or salmon, they did fill an important niche in some seasons in some years and under some circumstances. Historically, their skins and horns proved valuable material for clothing, utensils, and tools, which--at times--outranked food value in importance.

Over the past 150 years, sheep hunting practices in northwestern Alaska have been directly influenced by such diverse factors as the introduction of firearms and imported clothing, the rise and fall of reindeer herding, and commercial trapping, fluctuations in caribou population, and changes in transportation technology. Yet, even with all these changes, many traditional sheep hunting areas have remained in use into the 1990s; at the time of this study, sheep meat was still regarded by most as a favored specialty food. . . .

Contemporary Kobuk River Patterns

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a few Kobuk River residents continued to hunt sheep regularly. Ambler residents remained the most active sheep hunters of the five Kobuk River villages, perhaps because of their strong sheep hunting tradition, and because nearby mountain passes provided them easier access to good sheep hunting areas in the Noatak River valley. Although elderly men in Kobuk and Shungnak in the 1990s had hunted sheep as young men, few younger hunters had done so. Few sheep were available on the Kobuk River side of the Brooks Range, and high mountain passes blocked easy access from Shungnak and Kobuk to the Noatak River valley. At least one Shungnak elder said he hoped to take his sons sheep hunting in the near future to teach them about this activity. In the lower Kobuk River village of Noorvik, sheep were taken when encountered in the field, but were not usually the principal object of hunting trips. In Kiana, residents said sheep were far from the village and were rarely, if ever, still taken. . . .

Ambler hunters continued to prefer rams in fall and ewes or young sheep in winter. In general, sheep were treated like caribou in terms of hunting, butchering, and preparation. No cultural rules dictated special behavior toward sheep as existed for bears (Loon and Georgette 1989:33-35). Sheep meat was typically roasted, boiled, or made into soup. Although no longer used for parkas, fall sheepskins continued to be used in making mittens, socks, and mukluks. Sheep horns were made into ulu handles (puplu) and large spoons (qalugiplugch) and sinew was used for thread. . . .

In Noorvik, sheep occasionally were taken during months of snow cover by hunters traveling by snowmobile, generally, for purposes other than sheep hunting. One hunter said he and two others came across sheep while tracking wolverine one recent March in the northern tributaries of the Squirrel River; they killed four of them: three ewes and one young ram. In 1986, two Noorvik hunters came across sheep while traveling by snowmobile and killed two. They had wanted to take more to distribute to village elders, but were discouraged from doing so by the hunting citation issued that spring. . . . In another situation, Noorvik residents who had traveled by snowmobile to Noatak on business hunted sheep with friends there in Kungiakrok Creek (Kanigaksraq). A traditional Noatak hunting area. . . .

Ambler and Noorvik hunters agreed that fewer village residents hunted sheep now than in the past. This was attributed to several factors including the decline in trapping and the current abundance of caribou, both of which resulted in Kobuk River residents ranging less frequently into the sheep hunting areas of the Noatak River valley. For Ambler residents, the inclusion of the upper Noatak River valley in the Gates of the Arctic National Park discouraged some from sheep hunting, although they had customarily hunted sheep there before. This discouragement grew out of fear of surveillance and enforcement activities by the National Park Service and from uncertainty about the regulations. Kobuk River people reported they craved a taste of sheep from time to time. "We grew up on it because there were no caribou, that's why," one Ambler elder said. . . .

Contemporary Noatak Patterns

Noatak residents remained the most active sheep hunters in the region in the late 1980s and early 1990s, as a result of their proximity to good sheep habitat and hunting areas. As one hunter said, "We see sheep wherever we go." Most contemporary sheep hunting by Noatak residents took place in fall (August-September) and spring (March-April). Some also occurred in summer (June-July).

During fall and summer, hunters traveling the Noatak River by boat often killed sheep they saw near the river, typically in the upper Noatak River canyon (Ipagruat) and near the Poktovik Mountains (Pauktugvik) which came close to the river's edge. Noatak people traveled these sections of river-at least three hours by boat from the village-most frequently in fall for caribou hunting, but occasionally some boated up there immediately after breakup accounting for the early summer (June) harvest. Hunting sheep in the upper canyon is a very old tradition. Some Noatak residents said they found sheep less often in the canyon now than they once did, which they attributed to increased sport hunting to the south, more boat traffic, and more recreational camping by visitors floating the Noatak River. Noatak residents also occasionally walked into the Poktovik Mountains in fall to hunt sheep, but caribou hunting was the main harvest activity at this time of year, and few expended the time and energy to climb the mountains for sheep.

In winter and spring, hunters traveled by snowmobile to good sheep hunting areas in the western Baird Mountains, primarily in Kungiakrok Creek (Kanigaksraq) the Miyumerak Mountains (Mayuumarut) and the upper Eli River where they often set up camp and stayed a few days. Hunters also occasionally took sheep in the upper Wulik and Kivalina Rivers when traveling in the area by snowmobile. Sheep were less abundant in these areas than in Baird Mountains. In October, as soon as snowmobile travel was possible, one Noatak man occasionally hunted sheep at Panapkaagruaq on the upper Wulik River. All these were traditional sheep hunting locations. . . .

Noatak hunters said they had little preference for ewes or rams and simply took whatever they could catch. Sheep meat was prepared like caribou, usually roasted, boiled, or made into soup. One hunter ranked sheep meat as the finest, followed in order by reindeer, caribou, and moose. Fat from fall sheep was used in the preparation of akutuq (Eskimo ice cream) a favored dish which typically combined whipped fat, berries, and sometimes dried fish. Although sheepskins were no longer widely used, hunters sometimes kept fall skins in good condition. Spring sheep skins were usually shedding and considered worthless. Sheep horn was valued as a better material than caribou antler for ulu handles because it did not crack.

Noatak hunters widely agreed that less sheep hunting occurred now than in the past. One elder said that much less game in general was taken now than in former days. Hunters also thought the sheep population had generally been stable in their hunting areas over the years, and there were as many sheep in 1990 as in former times.

Noatak hunters objected to the one-sheep bag limit because sheep were small animals, and hunters were obliged to share the meat widely, especially with elders. . . .

Contemporary Kivalina Patterns

As in other northwestern Alaska villages, particularly those of the Kobuk River drainage, sheep hunting by Kivalina residents in the latter 20th century has been tied to the abundance and availability of caribou. On hunter said that as long as caribou were available. Kivalina men only occasionally hunted sheep. Other residents reported that sheep hunting was more common in former years when there were no caribou nearby.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Kivalina residents primarily hunted sheep in winter, particularly in March and April when days were long. Inland access to sheep at other seasons of the year was difficult because the local rivers were too shallow to reach mountain areas by motorboat. In summer, Kivalina residents occasionally sighted sheep during trips to collect bird eggs from cliffs at Cape Thompson. . . .

Most Kivalina hunters agreed that fewer sheep were taken by village residents now than in former years when caribou were scarce or absent. Evidence of this pattern surfaced in spring 1991 when Kivalina whaling captains, in need of meat to feed their crews, were considering hunting sheep because few caribou had wintered in the area. . . .

Contemporary Point Hope Patterns

After an absence of 25 to 30 years, Point Hope hunters have recently encountered sheep again in the local area. In each of the last two years (1991 and 1990), Point Hope hunters killed one sheep, most recently near Cape Thompson and the previous year near Cape Lisburne. Both were young sheep killed early in summer (June to early July) and both were found a short distance inland from the coast. For Point Hope hunters, the recent sheep harvests were very special events, "almost like catching a whale," one hunter said.

In the 1970s, Point Hope people occasionally hunted sheep in winter when village elders craved a taste of the meat. With no sheep near Point Hope, hunters traveled east by snowmobile to sheep hunting areas between the Kivalina and Noatak Rivers. One Point Hope hunter said they rarely hunt there now, possibly because they have plenty of caribou nearby to satisfy their need for fresh meat. . . .

Contemporary Kotzebue Patterns

By the latter half of the 20th century, Kotzebue had evolved into a regional trade and service center with a diverse population. Hunting patterns, too, were more diverse in Kotzebue compared to the smaller, more homogenous villages in the region. In the case of sheep, Kotzebue's hunting was characterized by two general patterns: fall (August through September) hunting by airplane and winter (December through April) hunting by snowmobile. Other less prevalent patterns involved fall hunting by boat and by all-terrain vehicle.

Kotzebue hunters with suitable private airplanes were able to reach fall sheep hunting areas not accessible to river-based hunters. . . . These hunters generally sought large rams, as required by regulation and complied with harvest reporting requirements. Most of the reported fall sheep harvest by Kotzebue residents was taken by airplane-equipped hunters.

Kotzebue hunters also used boats for hunting sheep. Kotzebue hunters traveling by boat on the Noatak River came across and killed sheep in the upper canyon or hiked into the Poktovik Mountains (Pauktugvik) to get sheep. One Kotzebue hunter described the upper canyon as a traditional sheep hunting area saying that his father taught him how to hunt there. . . .

A small number of Kotzebue residents hunted fall sheep by "four-wheelers" in the Igichuk Hills transporting the vehicles by boat from Kotzebue. In terms of land use, this was a fairly new hunting pattern, as sheep first moved into the Igichuk Hills in the 1970s after an absence of at least 100 years. In other respects, this represented a very old pattern of adaptation by subsistence hunters to shifting species abundance and availability. . . .

The second main sheep hunting pattern, probably more prevalent than the fall hunt, took place in winter with snowmobiles. Although most Kotzebue hunters believed that fall sheep meat was of higher quality then winter meat, the ubiquitous snowmobile made sheep hunting areas considerably more accessible in winter than in fall. Kotzebue hunters used many of the same sheep hunting areas in winter as in fall. . . .