Excerpted From Alaska Department of Fish and Game Technical Paper No. 214, February 1992.

Changes in Subsistence Brown Bear Harvest

The ethnographic record suggests the subsistence harvest of brown bear was a widespread, regular, and highly ritualized activity among Natives. On the other hand, recent data suggest that many of the traditions associated with brown bear hunting are no longer being practiced, and harvest levels and use of the resource have declined. Although no single cause is evident, Native informants point to several factors in explaining changes in brown bear subsistence harvests.

Three factors most often cited as contributing to changes in the subsistence harvest are; desirability of the meat, economic circumstances, and changes in state regulations. . . . It seems that brown bear meat was not especially prized in comparison with deer, moose, and goats, and its preparation involved more labor than other meats. Because of matters of personal taste, given a choice of game and other foods, many Natives choose not to harvest brown bear. The danger of trichinosis, a product of trichinae worms that infest brown bears' muscle, is also given as a reason for not salvaging bear meat. Several informants stated that the choice whether or not to harvest brown bear was linked to economic circumstances and the availability of other resources. One Native cited the 1920s as an example of a time when there were few jobs and little money for Natives. During that period, people hunted brown bears, consumed their meat and fat; and used, sold, or traded the hides to meet their needs.

Several Native hunters stated that the introduction of new territorial and state regulations including licensing, tag, and sealing requirements, smaller bag limits, and shorter seasons, and enforcement pressures contributed to the decline of brown bear use by Natives. Certain efficient, traditional means of hunting including the use of dogs are prohibited by regulation. Given the cultural strictures and plethora of special knowledge and skills associated with bear hunting, it may not have been practical to continue traditional patterns of hunting under territorial and state regulations. At the same time, violating or attempting to modify traditional norms of bear hunting may have been considered equally risky, contributing to a decline in hunting. For example, under contemporary regulations, a hunter must declare his intent to pursue a brown bear unequivocally by obtaining a permit and purchasing a tag. For a traditional hunter, such a direct and public declaration of intent would, in effect, ruin the chance for a successful hunt because the bear would perceive the intent and avoid the hunter. Similarly, salvage and sealing requirements would have been incompatible with prescribed treatments of the slain bear. Some Tlingit suggest they became incompatible with prescribed treatments of the slain bear. Some Tlingit suggest they became discouraged or intimidated by these regulations and abandoned the enterprise in favor of other forms of hunting which were less conflicting and restrictive.

In addition to these factors, the general decline in traditional knowledge about bears and bear hunting practices may also have contributed to the decline in bear hunting. Certain practices, such as the ceremonial rites performed to appease the bear's spirit, were actively discouraged by some Christian missionaries. Much of the traditional belief system surrounding bears was considered contrary to both Western science and Christian traditions. In this context, traditional beliefs and practices regarding brown bears may have been de-emphasized to the extent that much of the cultural knowledge surrounding brown bears was not transmitted to younger generations. Today, while Native people still express respect for the brown bear in many ways, and there is even resurgent interest in its spiritual aspects, many of the specific customs which traditionally enabled Tlingit to hunt brown bear successfully seem either to have been abandoned or not directly experienced by younger generations. This pattern also may have contributed to the decline in harvest levels. . . .1

Preparation of Meat and Hide

Because of their size and weight, bears were usually butchered in the field before being transported back to camp. The bear was skinned by making incisions down the belly and legs. Before the hide was removed, it was ritually shaken three times. The flesh was stripped from the bones, but the entrails were saved. The hide might be used to cover the meat or it might be fashioned into a pouch to carry the meat and fat (da Laguna 1972:366). Emmons (1991:133) remarked that "The bones of the head and the feet were either buried deep in the ground, or cast into the sea. But withal, its flesh was eaten, and its pelt was used like that of any other animal."

Before being put to general use, the hide itself was treated with great care.2

Before preparing the meat for consumption and storage, a short ritual was conducted which included warming the bear's head and putting the tongue and the heart, smothered in seal grease, on a stick. As the stick was held over the fire, one or more songs were sung to the bear's head. These songs were learned from the bear people. If this ritual was conducted properly, the bear's spirit would be pleased, and good weather would prevail for drying the skin. If the bear was not treated properly, it would rain continuously, and drying would be difficult. The rain was believed to be "the eyes of the brown bear crying" (George Jim, pers. comm. 1990).

Next, the meat was prepared, Traditionally, the only way to preserve bear meat (xuts tliyi) was to smoke an dried it; although more recently, it has been canned, frozen, or salted in barrels (Williams in Newton and Moss 1984:16). Before being dried and smoked, the meat was sometimes parboiled, seared, or soaked in saltwater. After drying, the meat was usually put up in oil to preserve it (de Laguna 1972:394; see also Gmelch and Gmelch 1985). Bear meat was sometimes smoked along with seal and deer meat and was preserved in seal oil and seal grease or in its own grease. The meat and the fat often were cut into strips like bacon for smoking. Smoked fat and meat could be fried and was said to be good for breakfast (George Kim, pers. comm. 1991). Occasionally, other foods such as berries and shellfish were preserved in bear fat.

Distribution

Like other foods, the meat, fat, and other parts of the bear were distributed through kin and community networks. Because brown bear kills represented large packages of meat which had to be quickly consumed or processed to avoid spoilage, the fresh meat and fat were often widely distributed. Undoubtedly, the gifts of meat, fat, or other parts of the bear carried great prestige for the harvester givers because of the dangers and demands inherent in the hunt. If they were not kept or bartered by the hunter(s) certain valuable parts of the bear such as the hide and fat, made especially prestigious gifts.

1 In some areas, violations of traditional hunting procedures are still believed to endanger individuals and to jeopardize the success of the hunt. For example, McClellan (1975:126) observes; "Nowadays, as in the past, men prefer to be in couples, or even larger groups when hunting bears. However, since the chief danger for the bear hunter is supposed to be cowardice on the part of his companions, he chooses his hunting partners with great care. 'You can't get frightened if you are going to kill well and not get hunt. You can't get nervous.' Those who have narrow escapes from bears almost always blame the cowardly actions of their fellow hunters." Lacking appropriate cultural knowledge and experience, but perhaps aware of its importance, young hunters may find bear hunting especially risky. In fact, de Laguna (1960:26) cites the lack of experienced male bear hunters as a reason why problem bears around Angoon were not hunted during her stay there in the 1950s. 2 According to McCllean (1975:129): Inland Tlingit hunters also usually leave the skins of both black and grizzly bears outside the camp for several days, with the head part pointed towards the sun, and the fur inside out. 'You do this so the bear people think good of it. [think that] you treat it with respect.' Sometimes, 'especially when they are bothered' by bear spirits, hunters put swan's down on the skin and treat it with red paint. .[ . .]Two grizzly skins must never be laid or hung tail to tail because 'you split your luck.'